|M 


GIFT   OF 
MICHAEL  REESE 


STOCK-BREEDING: 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 

ON   THE   APPLICATIONS   OF   THE 

LAWS    OF  DEVELOPMENT  AND    HEREDITY  TO    THE 

IMPROVEMENT  AND  BREEDING   OF 

DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 


BY 


LATE  PEOFE880K 


MANLY  MILES,   M.  D., 

OF  AGBICULTUBE  IN  THE  MICHIGAN  STATE  AGBICULT0EAL 
COLLEGE. 


UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

549  AND  551   BROADWAY. 
1879. 


COPYRIGHT   BY 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY. 

1878. 


••• 


PKEFACE. 


IT  is  somewliat  remarkable,  in  this  book-making 
age,  that  there  is  no  systematic  work  accessible  to  the 
student  in  which  the  known  facts  and  principles  of 
the  art  of  improving  and  breeding  domestic  animals 
are  presented,  in  convenient  form,  for  study  and  ref- 
erence, notwithstanding  the  importance  of  live-stock 
to  the  farmer,  and  the  wonderful  progress  that  has 
been  made  in  its  improvement  since  the  time  of  Bake- 
well. 

The  present  attempt  to  supply  this  want  has  been 
made  in  response  to  the  repeated  solicitations  of  per- 
sons interested  in  stock-breeding,  who  have  attended 
my  lectures  on  this  subject,  in  various  places,  for  sev- 
eral years  past. 

In  a  popular  exposition  of  the  principles  of  an  art 
that  is  almost  exclusively  based  upon  the  experience 
of  practical  men  there  is  little  opportunity  for  origi- 
nality, aside  from  the  classification  and  arrangement 
of  facts,  and  the  inferences,  in  some  instances,  that 


iv  PREFACE. 

may  be  drawn  from  them  in  explaining  the  practice 
of  the  most  successful  breeders. 

It  is  believed  that  a  systematic  statement  of  what 
is  already  known  in  the  practice  of  the  art  is  of  greater 
importance,  at  the  present  time,  than  any  new  truths, 
as  it  must  furnish  the  only  consistent  foundation  for 
future  progress  and  improvement. 

The  numerous  cases  that  have  been  collected  to 
illustrate  the  various  topics  under  discussion  have 
been  compiled,  as  far  as  possible,  from  original  sources 
and  presented  in  their  original  form — references,  in 
nearly  all  cases,  being  given  to  the  works  from  which 
they  are  quoted. 

Tin's  feature  of  the  work  will  be  of  interest  to  the 
student  who  wishes  to  study  the  subject  in  greater 
detail,  as  it  will,  to  some  extent,  serve  as  an  index  to 
authorities  that  may  be  profitably  consulted. 

In  the  limits  of  a  popular  work  it  is  of  course  im- 
possible to  treat  each  topic  exhaustively,  and  the  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  present  only  such  an  outline 
of  the  principles  of  the  art  as  would  be  required  in 
a  text-book  for  students,  or  a  work  of  reference  for 
farmers. 

The  acknowledgments  of  the  author  are  due  to 
the  well-known  animal-artist  John  K.  Page,  of  Sen- 
nett,  New  York,  for  the  spirited  illustrations  in  the 
chapter  on  "  Form,"  all  of  which  are  from  life,  with 


PREFACE.  v 

the  exception  of  Fig.  8,  which  is  after  a  sketch  by 
the  Hon.  Francis  Eotch. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  resume  of  cases  here 
presented  may  lead  breeders  to  recognize  the  impor- 
tance of  placing  on  record  the  additional  facts,  from 
their  own  experience,  that  are  required  for  a  more 
complete  discussion  of  the  subjects  treated  in  this 
volume. 

LANSING,  MICHIGAN,  July  20,  1878. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  PAGE 

I.  BREEDING  AS  AN  ART      .           .           .           .    -  .        1 

II.  HEREDITY  OP  NORMAL  CHARACTERS     .            .            .  11 

III.  HEREDITY  OF  DISEASES     .            .            .            .  .22 

IY.  HEREDITY  OP  ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL  CHARACTERS  40 

V.  ATAVISM    .            .            ...            .  .66 

VI.  LAW  OF  CORRELATION             .           .           .            .  83 

VII.  VARIATION            .           -.  -  >                    .            .  .92 

VIII.  FECUNDITY       .            . :      f  .    *        .            .            .  "      108 

IX.  IN-AND-IN  BREEDING          .           .           .           .  .137 

X.  CROSS-BREEDING           .            .            ,            .            .  190 

XL  RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OP  PARENTS     •.„+••          •  •     215 

XII.  INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION      .            .  255 

XIII.  INTRA-UTERINE  INFLUENCES           .            .            .  .     281 

XIV.  SEX 296 

XV.  PEDIGREE  .......     337 

XVI.  FORM  OF  ANIMALS  AS  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES          .  352 

XVII.  SELECTION             .            .            .            .          '.  .385 

XVIII.  PERIOD  OF  GESTATION  400 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING, 


CHAPTEE  I. 

BREEDING   AS   AN   AKT. 

THE  art  of  breeding  domesticated  animals,  for  the 
various  purposes  to  which  they  are  adapted,  has  been 
practised  from  the  earliest  times. 

The  oldest  writers  on  agriculture  gave  directions 
for  the  breeding  and  improvement  of  cattle,  and  some 
of  their  maxims  are  often  repeated  by  modern  authori- 
ties as  the  best  practical  guides  to  the  farmer. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  the  characteristics  of 
parents  were  transmitted  to  their  offspring,  and  the 
results  of  observation  were  tersely  expressed  in  the 
familiar  aphorism,  "  like  produces  like."  As  a  natural 
corollary  of  this  generally-accepted  law  of  the  animal 
organization,  the  rule  "  breed  from  the  best "  very 
early  found  a  place  among  the  approved  maxims  of 
the  art. 

The  principles  of  breeding,  up  to  the  time  of  Bake- 
well,  were  essentially  comprised  in  these  two  apo- 
thegms ;  but  it  is  evident,  from  the  practice  of  breed- 
ers, that  they  did  not  fully  appreciate  the  extended  ap- 


2  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

plications  of  these  empirical  expressions,  that  repre- 
sent the  fundamental  principles  of  the  best  modern 
practice. 

The  early  breeders,  like  many  at  the  present  time, 
had  no  consistent  system  of  selection.  The  "best" 
of  any  given  selection  for  breeding,  made  in  accord- 
ance with  the  time-honored  rule,  differed  in  all  essen- 
tial details  of  form  and  quality  from  the  "  best "  that 
were  selected  at  another  time. 

Their  standard  of  excellence  was,  in  fact,  constantly 
changing,  so  that  no  real  progress  in  the  development 
of  the  most  valuable  qualities  could  be  made. 

Shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  Robert 
Bakewell,  of  Dishley  Grange,  Leicestershire,  England, 
originated  a  new  system  which  he  successfully  prac- 
tised in  the  improvement  of  Leicester  sheep,  Long-horn 
cattle,  and  Black  cart-horses.  His  belief  that  the  fa- 
miliar maxim,  "  like  begets  like,"  was  not  limited  to 
a  general  similarity  of  the  offspring  to  the  parent,  but 
extended  to  the  minutest  details  of  the  organization, 
led  him  to  adopt  for  his  guidance  a  definite  standard 
of  excellence  representing  the  form  and  internal  quali- 
ties that  were  best  adapted  to  the  highest  develop- 
ment of  the  animal  for  a  special  purpose. 

His  critical  study  of  the  form  and  proportions  of 
animals,  and  their  relations  to  the  most  desirable  quali- 
ties, enabled  him  to  develop  an  ideal  model  of  perfec- 
tion, that  he  kept  constantly  in  view  when  making 
his  selections  for  breeding. 

In  his  sheep  and  cattle  he  endeavored  to  secure  a 
large  proportion  of  choice  parts  in  the  carcass,  a  supe- 
rior quality  of  flesh,  with  a  tendency  to  early  maturity, 


BREEDING  AS  AN  ART.  3 

and  uniformity  in  the  transmission  of  their  most  valu- 
able qualities  to  their  offspring. 

Beauty  in  the  form  and  proportions  of  his  animals 
was  always  made  to  contribute  to  the  development  of 
useful  characters.  Mr.  BakewelPs  success  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  animals  he  was  breeding  must  be 
attributed  to  the  exercise  of  a  combination  of  talents 
that  would  have  made  him  eminent  in  any  profession 
or  pursuit. 

A  correct  and  well-trained  eye  enabled  him  to 
detect  the  slightest  variations  of  form;  and  these, 
from  his  knowledge  of  the  animal  organization,  ob- 
tained by  long-continued  and  systematic  observation, 
he  associated  with  the  correlated  qualities  they  rep- 
resented. 

Relying  upon  his  own  good  judgment,  which  was 
not  biased  by  non-essential  conditions  or  fanciful  the- 
ories, he  not  only  accepted  all  that  was  consistent  in 
the  received  rules  of  the  art,  but  established  new  prin- 
ciples of  the  greatest  practical  importance.  < 

He  seems  to  have  been  apt  in  tracing  the  relations 
of  cause  and  effect,  and  methodical  and  persevering 
in  the  execution  of  his  well-considered  plans  for  im- 
provement. 

With  the  spirit  of  a  true  artist,  he  endeavored  to 
mould  the  plastic  forms  of  his  animals  to  give  expres- 
sion to  his  ideal  conception  of  the  qualities  that  con- 
stitute perfection. 

The  method  of  Bakewell  has  been  successfully 
practised  by  other  able  men ;  and  we  now  have,  as  the 
result  of  their  labors,  a  variety  of  improved  breeds  of 
remarkable  excellence,  each  differing  from  the  others 


4  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

in  the  particular  characters  that  adapt  them  to  special 
conditions  and  purposes. 

Success  in  the  breeding  of  live-stock,  as  in  all 
other  departments  of  farm  management,  must  be 
measured  by  the  actual  value  of  the  products,  and  the 
profits  that  may  be  derived  from  them. 

The  relative  value  of  animals  depends  upon  their 
adaptation  to  a  particular  purpose,  and  the  returns 
they  make  for  feed  consumed.  It  is  evident  that, 
where  a  particular  form  of  animal  product  is  the  lead- 
ing object,  the  greater  value  will  be  placed  upon  the 
animal  that  excels  in  its  production.  Excellence  in 
other  directions  may  be  desirable,  but  it  will  not 
compensate  for  a  deficiency  in  the  special  qualities 
required. 

The  return  obtained,  in  any  form  of  animal  prod- 
uct, for  feed  consumed,  is  of  the  first  importance  in 
estimating  the  value  of  animals.  Mr.  Bakewell  re- 
garded live-stock  as  machines  for  converting  the  vege- 
table products  of  the  farm  into  animal  products  of 
greater  value ;  and  Sir  John  Sinclair  expresses  the 
same  idea  when  he  says,  "  Under  the  head  of  live- 
stock are  comprehended  the  various  sorts  of  domesti- 
cated animals  which  are  employed  by  man  as  instru- 
ments for  converting  to  his  use,  either  by  labor  or 
otherwise,  those  productions  of  the  soil  which  are  not 
immediately  applicable  to  supply  his  wants  in  their 
natural  state."  * 

The  animal  that  furnishes  the  largest  amount  and 
the  best  quality  of  the  desired  animal  product,  from 
a  given  amount  of  food,  would  undoubtedly  be  the 

1  "  Code  of  Agriculture,"  p.  84. 


BREEDING  AS  AN  ART.  5 

"  best ; "  or,  looking  more  particularly  at  the  activity 
of  the  animal  machinery,  it  might  be  said  that  the 
animal  that  converts  the  largest  amount  of  food  into 
animal  products  of  the  best  quality,  with  the  least 
possible  waste  of  material,  would  be  the  most  valu- 
able. 

It  is  often  assumed  that  animals  that  eat  but  little 
are  the  most  profitable,  but  this  error  is  evidently 
founded  on  mistaken  notions  of  the  functions  of  ani- 
mal life,  and  the  true  place  that  they  occupy  in  the 
economy  of  the  farm.  A  machine  that  will  convert 
the  largest  amount  of  raw  material  into  the  desired 
product,  with  the  least  possible  wear,  and  the  least 
expenditure  of  fuel  to  furnish  the  required  motive- 
power,  would  be  more  valuable  than  one  that  required 
less  fuel,  but  in  which  the  capacity  for  efficient  work 
was  diminished  in  a  greater  ratio. 

The  repairs  of  the  animal  machine  are  made  at  the 
expense  of  food  consumed,  and,  if  the  animal  is  capa- 
ble of  digesting  and  assimilating  only  what  is  required 
for  this  purpose,  it  would  be  comparatively  worthless, 
as  a  profit  can  only  be  obtained  from  the  food  assimi- 
lated in  excess  of  this  amount. 

In  my  experiments  in  feeding  swine,  the  best  re- 
turns for  feed  consumed  were  obtained  when  the  ani- 
mals ate  the  most  in  proportion  to  their  live  weight, 
and  this  is  undoubtedly  the  rule  in  stock-feeding. 
This  is  readily  explained  by  the  fact  that,  when  a 
large  amount  of  food  is  consumed  by  an  animal,  pro- 
viding it  is  capable  of  digesting  and  assimilating  it, 
the  proportion  of  food  required  to  supply  the  waste 
of  the  tissues  and  keep  the  animal  machinery  in  work- 


6  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

ing  order  is  less  than  when  a  smaller  amount  is  con- 
sumed.J 

It  will  not,  then,  be  desirable  to  breed  animals  that 
eat  but  little,  as  we  cannot  reasonably  expect  them  to 
give  as  large  a  proportionate  return  for  feed  consumed 
as  those  that  have  efficient  digestive  organs  of  greater 
capacity. 

A  comparison  of  the  results  obtained  with  different 
animals  is  generally  neglected  by  farmers,  and  they 
therefore  make  too  little  difference  in  the  price  of 
their  best  animals,  that  are  capable  of  returning  a  fair 
profit  on  the  food  consumed,  and  those  of  inferior 
quality,  that  do  not,  perhaps,  pay  for  their  keep. 

The  great  difference  in  the  relative  value  of  ani- 
mals will  be  best  shown  by  a  few  illustrations. 

One  cow  yields  five  pounds  of  butter  a  week, 
which,  at  twenty  cents  a  pound,'  would  be  one  dollar, 
or  twenty  dollars  for  twenty  weeks,  which  we  will 
assume  is  the  period  of  usefulness  for  the  year. 

Another  yields  eight  pounds  of  butter  a  week, 
worth  one  dollar  and  sixty  cents,  and  the  total  return 
for  twenty  weeks  would  be  thirty-two  dollars,  or 
twelve  dollars  more  than  was  realized  from  the  first 
cow.  This  difference  represents  the  interest  on  one 
hundred  and  twenty  dollars,  at  ten  per  cent,  for  the 
year.  On  the  same  basis,  a  cow  yielding  ten  pounds 
of  butter  a  week  would  earn  forty  dollars  in  twenty 
weeks,  or  twenty  dollars  more  than  the  first  cow,  and 
this  difference  would  be  the  interest  on  two  hundred 
dollars  for  the  year. 

Three  pounds  of  wool  from  one  sheep,  at  fifty 

1  "  Michigan  Agricultural  Report,"  1873,  p.  120. 


BREEDING  AS  AN  ART.  7 

cents  per  pound,  would  bring  one  dollar  and  fifty 
cents ;  and  six  pounds  from  another,  at  the  same 
price,  would  bring  three  dollars,  a  difference  of  one 
dollar  and  fifty  cents,  or  the  interest  on  fifteen  dollars. 
Even  if  it  is  claimed  that  the  animals  giving  the 
greatest  return  consume  considerably  more  food  than 
the  inferior  ones,  there  would  still  remain  a  great  dif- 
ference in  the  profits  of  their  products. 

If  in  the  same  way  we  estimate  the  relative  value 
of  sires,  by  comparing  the  .qualities  of  their  offspring, 
it  would  be  seen  that  one  capable  of  increasing  the 
value  of  the  flock  or  herd  would  be  well  worth  a  good 
price ;  while  another,  that  could  not  be  relied  on  to 
impress  any  good  qualities  upon  his  offspring,  would 
be  dear  at  any  price. 

The  object  of  the  art  of  breeding  is  the  improve- 
ment of  animals  in  those  qualities  that  have  a  definite 
value,  among  which  are  the  production  of  meat,  and 
milk,  and  wool,  and  labor. 

Breeders  who  have  been  the  most  successful  in 
improving  the  various  pure  breeds  have  endeavored 
to  obtain  the  highest  development  of  some  one  of 
these  qualities ;  while  the  others,  which  they  looked 
upon  as  of  secondary  importance,  have  been  quite 
generally  neglected. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  assumed  that  these  quali- 
ties are  absolutely  incompatible,  so  that  a  high  degree 
of  excellence  in  two  or  more  of  them  cannot  be  ob- 
tained in  the  same  animal ;  but  it  is  undoubtedly 
easier  to  secure  an  extraordinary  development  of  a 
single  character  than  to  obtain  the  same  degree  of 
excellence  in  two  or  more  at  the  same  time. 


8  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

When  the  entire  energies  of  the  system  are  acting 
in  a  particular  direction,  as  they  must  do  to  insure  the 
highest  development  of  a  single  quality,  there  is  no 
residuum  of  force  for  the  development  of  other  quali- 
ties that  are  not  strictly  correlated  with  the  one  that 
is  made  dominant. 

The  modern  art  of  breeding  is  founded  on  the 
practice  of  the  most  successful  breeders,  and  its  rules 
have  been  almost  exclusively  empirical  in  their  origin. 

The  science  of  physiology,  by  explaining  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  many  of  thes^  rules  are  based,  has  de- 
fined the  limits  of  their  applications  with  greater  ex- 
actness, and  suggested  new  fields  for  investigation. 

In  its  progress  the  art  has,  however,  kept  constant- 
ly in  advance  of  the  allied  science  of  physiology,  which 
it  has  aided  in  developing  by  presenting,  in  its  definite 
facts,  the  required  data  for  successful  scientific  study.1 

With  the  progress  of  knowledge,  the  unexplained 
precepts  of  the  art  are  gradually  diminishing,  and  the 
many  theories  that  have  been  framed  from  partial 
views  of  the  truth  must  be  replaced  by  consistent 
principles  of  general  application. 

The  inferior  quality  of  the  live-stock  on  the  farms 
throughout  the  country  shows  that  the  relations  of 
the  art  of  breeding  to  the  practice  of  agriculture  have 
been  too  generally  overlooked  by  farmers. 

Looking  upon  live-stock  as  a  special  interest,  and 

1  Whewell  remarks  that  "in  all  cases  the  arts  are  prior  to  the 
related  sciences.  Art  is  the  parent,  not  the  progeny,  of  science :  the 
realization  of  principles  in  practice  forms  part  of  the  prelude,  as  well 
as  the  sequel,  of  theoretical  discovery "  ("  History  of  the  Inductive 
Sciences,"  vol.  i.,  p.  240). 


BREEDING  AS  AN  ART.  9 

referring  to  their  past  experience  with  animals  that 
were  entirely  unfitted  for  any  useful  purpose,  it  is  not 
strange  that  the  assumption  that  "  live-stock  will  not 
pay  "  is  so  often  repeated. 

The  same  opinion  seemed  to  prevail  among  the 
farmers  of  Eome  in  the  first  century,  and  Columella 
pointed  out  to  them  the  fallacy  of  this  prejudice 
against  one  of  the  most  important  interests  of  the 
farm.1 

Conrad  Heresbach,  qiioting  Fundanius  in  Yarro, 
compares  the  tillage  of  jfche  soil  and  the  interest  in 
live-stock  to  two  instruments  in  an  orchestra,  each 
differing  in  sound ;  and  he  terms  "  the  grazier's  trade 
the  treble,  and  the  tiller's  occupation  the  base,"  each 
aiding  in  the  harmony  as  a  whole.8 

Fitzherbert  expresses  the  same  idea  when  he  says, 
"  An  husbande  cannot  well  thryve  by  his  corne  with- 
out he  have  other  cattell,  nor  by  his  cattell  without 
corne,  for  els  he  shall  be  a  byer,  a  borrower,  or  a 
beggar.'- 

George  Culley,  in  his  valuable  treatise  on  live- 
stock, says,  "According  to  the  present  improved  sys- 
tem of  farming  there  is  such  a  connection  between 
the  cultivation  of  the  ground  and  breeding,  rearing, 
and  fattening  cattle,  sheep,  and  other  domestic  ani- 
mals, that  a  man  will  make  but  an  indifferent  figure 
in  rural  affairs  if  he  does  not  understand  the  latter  as 
well  as  the  former."  * 

1  "  Columella  of  Husbandry,"  book  vi.,  p.  255. 

2  "  Foure  Bookes  of  Husbandrie"  (1586),  p.  111. 

3  "  Boke  of  Husbandry"  (1532),  p.  34  (reprint,  1767). 

4  "Live-Stock,"  by  Culley,  fourth  edition,  1807,  p.  1. 


10  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

The  statements  of  these  writers  were  not  made  on 
theoretical  grounds,  but  represented  the  opinions  of 
those  who  were  most  successful  in  their  system  of 
practice. 

At  the  present  time  farmers  throughout  the  coun- 
try should  give  greater  attention  to  live-stock,  as  the 
first  step  in  the  improvement  of  their  system  of  farm- 
ing. 

Animals  of  the  best  quality,  that  are  adapted  to 
the  conditions  of  the  farm  and  the  particular  purpose 
that  the  system  of  management  demands,  will  yield 
profitable  returns  for  the  feed  consumed,  and  furnish 
the  best  means  of  enriching  the  soil  for  the  growing 
of  grain. 

The  principles  that  guide  the  breeder  of  pure-bred 
stock  are  likewise  applicable  to  the  improvement  of 
the  common  stock  of  the  farm. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  all  persons  will  be 
equally  successful  in  producing  animals  of  extraordi- 
nary merit,  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  true  that  a  careful 
study  of  the  principles  of  the  art,  which  are  easily 
understood,  will  enable  the  farmer  to  make  improve- 
ments in  his  stock  that  will  add  largely  to  his  profits. 


CHAPTER  II. 

HEEEDITY   OF   NOEMAL   CHARACTERS. 

THE  inheritance  by  the  offspring  of  the  characters 
of  the  parents,  at  the  time  of  procreation,  has  been 
generally  accepted  as  a  law  of  the  animal  organiza- 
tion. 

Although  there  are  many  apparent  exceptions  to 
this  law,  an  examination  of  all  the  facts  relating  to 
the  hereditary  transmission  of  structure  and  qualities 
will,  however,  show  that  it  is  not  only  constant  in  its 
action,  but  extends  to  every  feature  of  the  organiza- 
tion, and  that  the  supposed  exceptions  are  the  result 
of  the  predominant  influence  of  other  laws  that  ob- 
scure the  hereditary  tendency,  for  the  time  being, 
without  wholly  suppressing  it. 

The  resemblance  of  offspring  to  parents,  so  fre- 
quently remarked,  is  not,  as  might  at  first  be  sup- 
posed, confined  to  the  external  and  more  obvious 
characters,  but  manifests  itself  in  the  internal  struct- 
ure and  functional  activity  of  the  system.  In  fact,  at 
the  moment  of  birth,  the  sum  of  the  characters  and 
qualities  of  the  young  animal  have  been  derived  from 
its  parents,  and  we  shall  find  reason  for  the  belief  that 
they  include  every  peculiarity  in  the  organization  of 
both  parents. 


12  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

The  nervous  system  and  mental  condition,  the 
organs  of  nutrition  and  reproduction,  the  habits,  pre- 
dispositions, and  temperament,  the  bones,  the  muscles, 
and  the  powers  of  endurance,  that  characterize  the 
parents,  are  all  reproduced  in  the  offspring  without 
essential  change  in  their  characteristics. 

Illustrations,  drawn  from  the  different  departments 
of  organic  life,  will  serve  to  show  the  extent  and  per- 
sistent action  of  the  law  of  heredity,  and  aid  us  in  de- 
termining its  applications  in  the  breeding  of  domestic 
animals. 

In  the  geological  formations,  representing  immense 
periods  of  time,  fossil  species  and  generic  forms  pre- 
sent the  same  essential  characters  throughout  their 
entire  range. 

The  various  species  of  wild  animals  are  readily 
recognized  wherever  found,  and  the  lapse  of  time 
represented  in  the  historic  period  has  made  no  appre- 
ciable change  in  their  characters.  The  animals  that 
have  been  preserved  in  the  monuments  of  Egypt  for 
thousands  of  years  are  essentially  the  same  as  those 
now  found  on  the  borders  of  the  Nile.1 

So  far  as  the  art  of  breeding  is  concerned,  a  con- 
sideration of  the  various  theories  of  evolution  can  be 
of  no  practical  value,  and  the  observed  repetition  of 
generic  and  specific  forms  may  be  assumed  to  repre- 
sent a  constancy  in  the  inherited  characteristics  of 
animals. 

The  cycle  of  changes  through  which  the  embryo 
passes  in  the  process  of  development  remains  the 

1  Colin,  "Physiologic  Compare,"  tome  ii.,  p.  533;  Darwin's  "Ani- 
mals and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  30-60. 


HEREDITY  OF  NORMAL  CHARACTERS.  13 

same  in  the  various  species,  while  the  disappearance 
of  organs  that  serve  a  temporary  purpose  takes  place 
at  the  same  period  of  growth.  The  races  of  men, 
when  pure,  are  readily  distinguished  by  peculiarities 
in  complexion,  features,  and  general  organization. 

The  Jews  and  the  gypsies  have  been  cited  as  illus- 
trations of  the  hereditary  transmission  of  the  peculi- 
arities of  a  race,  as  they  do  not  intermarry  with  other 
families,  and  their  distinguishing  characteristics  have 
remained  the  same  for  centuries.1 

The  uniformity  observed  in  the  various  breeds  of 
domestic  animals  is  the  result  of  the  inheritance  of 
the  characters  that  adapt  them  to  the  conditions  under 
which  they  have  originated.  In  the  improved  breeds 
advantage  is  taken  of  the  hereditary  transmission  of 
certain  family  peculiarities  that  have  been  ingrafted 
upon  those  of  the  original  breed.  As  the  origin  and 
development  of  these  improved  characters  have  no 
relation  to  our  present  subject,  they  will  be  considered 
in  another  chapter. 

In  almost  every  breed  there  are  favorite  families, 
that  are  prized  by  breeders  for  the  persistence  with 
which  they  stamp  their  peculiar  characters  upon  their 
offspring. 

The  breeders  of  sheep  will  call  to  mind  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Ellman  and  the  Webb  sorts  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  Southdowns,  and  of  the  Dishley 
family  in  the  development  of  the  Leicesters. 

The  different  cabanas  of  merino  sheep  in  Spain, 

1  "  Heredity,"  by  Ribot,  pp.  112-114  ;  "Journal  of  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Society,"  vol.  xiv.,  p.  106 ;  Goodale's  "  Principles  of  Breeding," 
p.  23  ;  Anderson's  "  Recreations  in  Agriculture,"  vol.  i.,  p.  71. 


14  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

that  were  kept  distinct  for  many  years,  were  charac- 
terized by  peculiarities  that  were  uniformly  inherited.1 

Of  the  offshoots  of  the  original  Spanish-merino 
sheep,  the  Silesian  family  bred  in  Europe,  and  the 
Rich  and  the  Hammond  families  in  the  United  States, 
furnish  further  illustrations  of  the  hereditary  trans- 
mission of  family  characters. 

Of  cattle,  the  Booth  and  the  Bates  families  of 
Short-horns,  the  Quartley  family  of  Devons,  the  Dish- 
ley  family  of  Long-horns,  and  the  Ben  Tompkins  sort 
of  the  Herefords,  may  be  mentioned  as  among  the 
favorites  of  breeders,  on  account  of  the  marked  he- 
redity of  their  peculiar  qualities. 

Muscular  strength,  in  connection  with  remarkable 
powers  of  endurance,  is  frequently  observed  in  par- 
ticular families.  "  In  ancient  times  there  were  fami- 
lies of  athletes,  and  there  have  been  families  of  prize- 
fighters. The  recent  researches  of  Galton  as  to  wrest- 
lers and  oarsmen  show  that  the  victors  generally 
belong  to  a  small  number  of  families,  among  whom 
strength  and  skill  are  hereditary." a 

The  large  proportion  of  successful  racers  tracing 
their  ancestry  to  Herod  and  Eclipse,  not  in  a  single 
line  only,  but  in  several,  furnish  a  good  illustration  of 
the  hereditary  transmission  of  muscular  power.  It  is 
said  that  "Eclipse  begot  334  and  Herod  497  winners." 3 

1  Livingstone  on  "The  Sheep,"  p.  21;  Morrell's  "American  Shep- 
herd," pp.  71-75  ;  Randall's  "  Practical  Shepherd,"  p.  14 ;  Youatt  on 
"  Sheep,"  p.  156. 

8  "  Heredity,"  by  Ribot,  p.  6. 

8  "  The  Horse,"  by  Stonehenge,  American  edition,  p.  142 ;  Stone- 
henge,  "  British  Rural  Sports,"  p.  282 ;  "  The  Horse  of  America,"  by 
Frank  Forrester,  vol.  ii.,  p.  265  ;  Darwin's  "  Animals  and  Plants  under 
Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  21. 


HEREDITY  OF  NORMAL  CHARACTERS.  15 

The  most  successful  American  trotting-horses  are 
said  to  belong  to  but  three  families,  and  of  these  the 
Messenger  is  thought  to  be  the  best,  as  it  has  fur- 
nished a  larger  number  of  fast  trotters  than  any 
other.1 

There  are  families  that  inherit  that  peculiar  or- 
ganic structure  of  ear,  nervous  system,  and  vocal  or- 
gans, that  gives  rise  to  what  is  recognized  as  musical 
talent.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  instances  of  this 
form  of  heredity  on  record  is  that  of  the  family  of 
Sebastian  Bach.  "  It  began  in  1550,  and  continued 
through  eight  generations.  .  .  .  During  a  period  of 
nearly  two  hundred  years  this  family  produced  a  mul- 
titude of  artists  of  the  first  rank.  ...  Its  head  was 
Weit  Bach,  a  baker  of  Presburg,  who  used  to  seek 
relaxation  from  labor  in  music  and  song.  He  had 
two  sons,  who  commenced  that  unbroken  line  of  mu* 
sicians  of  the  same  name  that  for  nearly  two  centuries 
overran  Thuringia,  Saxony,  and  Franconia.  .  .  .  They 
were  all  organists  or  church-singers.  ...  In  this  fam- 
ily are  reckoned  twenty-nine  eminent  musicians." a 

The  feeding  quality,  or  tendency  to  lay  on  fat, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  important  characteristics  of 
the  meat-producing  breeds  of  animals,  is  also  heredi- 
tary. In  each  distinctive  breed,  where  the  production 
of  meat  is  the  leading  quality,  there  are  certain  fami- 
lies that  excel  in  this  direction. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  the  predisposition  to 
obesity  is  so  strong  in  many  cases  that  it  is  observed 

1  "  Horse  Portraiture,"  by  Simpson,  p.  303. 

8  Ribot  on  "  Heredity,"  p.  63  ;  Carpenter's  "  Mental  Physiology," 
p.  273. 


16  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

even  under  the  disadvantages  of  privation  and  hard 
labor.1 

The  duration  of  the  life  of  an  individual  is  deter- 
mined, to  a  great  extent  at  least,  by  inheritance.  The 
members  of  some  families  die  at  an  early  age,  while  in 
other  families  a  ripe  old  age  may  be  reasonably  expect- 
ed. The  life-tables  that  have  been  constructed  show 
the  average  expectation  of  life  of  the  masses ;  while  the 
expectation  of  life  of  an  individual  can  only  be  approxi- 
mately determined  by  the  age  attained  by  his  ancestors. 

Darwin  mentions  "  the  case  of  four  brothers  who 
died  between  the  ages  of  sixty  and  seventy,  in  the 
same  highly-peculiar  comatose  state.2  .  .  . 

"  It  is  now  generally  understood  that  longevity 
depends  far  less  on  race,  climate,  profession,  mode  of 
life,  or  food,  than  on  hereditary  transmission." 

There  are  long-li ved  families  under  what  would  be 
considered  unfavorable  conditions  for  longevity,  while 
other  families  are  short-lived  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions  for  the  promotion  of  health.  "  The  aver- 
age of  life,"  says  Dr.  Lucas,  "plainly  depends  on 
locality,  hygiene,  and  civilization,  but  individual  lon- 
gevity is  entirely  exempt  from  these  conditions. 
Everything  tends  to  show  that  long  life  is  the  result 
of  an  internal  principle  of  vitality,  which  privileged 
individuals  receive  at  their  birth.  It  is  so  deeply  im- 
printed in  their  nature  as  to  make  itself  apparent  in 
every  part  of  the  organization."  8 

1  "  Heredity,"  by  Ribot,  p.  3 ;  Colin,  "  Physiologic  Comparee,"  tome 
ii.,  p.  634. 

3  "Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  28. 

'"Heredity,"  by  Ribot,  p.  5;  Smith's  "Physical  Indications  of 
Longevity,"  p.  3. 


HEREDITY  OF  NORMAL  CHARACTERS.  17 

The  remarkable  difference  that  is  observed  in  the 
fecundity,  not  only  of  individuals  but  of  classes  and 
families,  is  undoubtedly  owing  to  inherited  peculiari- 
ties of  the  system.  As  a  rule,  the  lower  groups  of 
animals  present  a  greater  activity  of  the  reproductive 
powers  than  the  higher.  Among  the  vertebrates  the 
oviparous  classes  are  more  prolific  than  the  viviparous. 
Certain  families  are  noted  for  their  fecundity,  while 
in  others  it  is  rare  to  find  an  individual  that  has  many 
descendants. 

Girou  relates  the  case  of  a  mother  who  gave  birth 
to  twenty-four  children,  among  them  five  girls,  who 
in  turn  gave  birth  to  forty-six  children  in  all.  The 
daughter  of  this  woman's  son,  while  still  young,  gave 
birth  to  her  sixteenth  child. 

In  some  families  inherited  fecundity  has  been  ob- 
served for  five  or  six  generations.  "  The  sons,  daugh- 
ters, and  grandchildren,  of  a  couple  who  were  the 
parents  of  nineteen  children,  were  nearly  all  gifted," 
says  Lucas,  "  with  the  same  fecundity."  1 

Those  familiar  with  the  various  breeds  of  domestic 
animals  will  call  to  mind  many  cases  that  illustrate 
the  heredity  of  the  procreative  powers. 

Of  the  high-bred  families  of  the  improved  breeds, 
some  are  remarkably  prolific,  while  others  are  almost 
uniformly  deficient  in  this  important  quality. 

The  imported  Short-horn  cow,  Young  Mary,  by 
Jupiter  (2170),  had  fourteen  heifer-calves  and  one 
bull,  and  died  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years. 

Her  offspring  were  almost  without  exception  re- 

1  "  Heredity,"  by  Ribot,  p.  4  ;  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physi- 
ology," vol.  ii.,  p.  471. 
2 


18  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

markably  prolific.  Mr.  Lewis  F.  Allen,  the  editor  of 
the  "  American  Short-Horn  Herd-Book,"  says,  "  More 
herd-book  pedigrees  run  to  Young  Mary  than  any 
other  half-dozen  cows  on  record."  * 

It  is  generally  admitted  by  physiologists  that  the 
mental  peculiarities  of  an  individual  are  determined, 
to  a  great  extent,  by  hereditary  influences. 

Dr.  Carpenter  says :  "  The  view  of  the  relation  of 
mental  habits  to  peculiarities  of  bodily  organization, 
whether  congenital  or  acquired,  must  be  extended  to 
that  remarkable  hereditary  transmission  of  psychical 
character  which  presents  itself  under  circumstances 
that  entirely  forbid  our  attributing  it  to  any  agency 
that  can  operate  subsequently  to  birth,  and  which  it 
would  seem  impossible  to  account  for  on  any  other 
hypothesis  than  that  the  ' formative  capacity'  of  the 
germ,  in  great  degree,  determines  the  subsequent  de- 
velopment of  the  brain,  as  of  other  parts  of  the  body, 
and  (through  this)  its  mode  of  activity.  .  .  .  And  this 
formative  capacity,  which  is  the  physiological  expres- 
sion of  what  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  i  original 
constitution'  of  each  individual,  is  essentially  deter- 
mined by  the  conditions,  dynamical  and  material,  of 
the  parent  organisms." a 

In  domestic  animals  it  is  a  matter  of  common  ob- 
servation that  the  temper  or  disposition,  and  other 
mental  peculiarities  of  individuals,  are  determined 

1  "  History  of  Short-Horns,"  p.  217.  For  further  illustrations,  sec 
the  chapter  on  "  Fecundity." 

8  "  Mental  Physiology,"  pp.  367,  368 ;  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology,"  vol.  il,  p.  471 ;  Carpenter's  "Human  Physiology,"  p.  817. 
Ribot,  in  his  work  on  "  Heredity,"  gives  an  extended  discussion  of  the 
hereditary  transmission  of  mental  peculiarities,  s 


HEREDITY  OF  NORMAL  CHARACTERS.  19 

by  inheritance.  The  peculiar  imperfection  of  vision 
manifested  in  the  inability  to  distinguish  colors — 
popularly  known  as  color-blindness — is  also  hereditary. 
Of  the  many  instances  on  record  of  the  hereditary 
transmission  of  this  defect,  the  following  is  perhaps 
the  most  remarkable.  Dr.  Pliny  Earle  says:  "My 
maternal  grandfather  and  two  of  his  brothers  were 
characterized  by  it,  and  among  the  descendants  of  the 
first-mentioned  there  are  seventeen  persons  in  whom  it 
is  found.  I  have  not  been  able  to  extend  my  in- 
quiries among  the  collateral  branches  of  the  family, 
but  have  heard  of  one  individual,  a  female,  in  one  of 
them,  who  was  similarly  affected.  .  .  .  Nothing  is 
known  of  the  first  generation  (of  five)  in  regard  to  the 
power  of  the  perception  of  colors.  In  the  second,  of 
a  family  consisting  of  seven  brothers  and  eight  sisters, 
three  of  the  brothers — one  of  whom,  as  before  men- 
tioned, was  the  grandfather  of  the  writer — had  the 
defect  in  question.  In  the  third  generation,  consist- 
ing of  the  children  of  the  grandfather  aforesaid,  of 
three  brothers  and  four  sisters,  there  was  no  one 
whose  ability  to  distinguish  colors  was  imperfect.  In 
the  fourth  generation,  the  first  family  includes  five 
brothers  and  four  sisters,  of  whom  two  of  the  former 
have  the  defect.  In  the  second  family  there  was  but 
one  child, -whose  vision  was  normal.  In  the  third 
there  were  seven  brothers,  of  whom  four  had  the 
defect.  In  the  fifth,  seven  sisters  and  three  brothers, 
of  all  of  whom  the  vision  is  perfect  in  regard  to 
color.  In  the  sixth,  four  brothers  and  five  sisters, 
of  whom  two  of  each  sex  have  the  defect.  In  the 
seventh,  two  brothers  and  three  sisters — both  of  the 


20  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

former  have  the  defect.  In  the  eighth  there  was 
no  issue,  and  in  the  ninth  there  are  two  sisters, 
both  of  them  capable  of  appreciating  colors.  Of 
the  fifth  generation,  the  defective  perception  has 
hitherto  been  detected  in  but  two  of  the  families. 
In  one  of  them,  consisting  of  three  brothers  and 
three  sisters,  one  of  the  brothers  has  the  defect, 
and  in  the  other,  a  male,  an  only  child,  is  similarly 
affected."  * 

The  peculiar  condition  of  the  lens  of  the  eye  ob- 
served in  short-sighted  people  is  hereditary,  as  is  also 
the  opposite  defect,  giving  what  is  known  as  long 
sight.8 

"  Day-blindness,  or  imperfect  vision  under  a  bright 
light,  is  inherited,  as  is  night-blindness,  or  an  inca- 
pacity to  see  except  under  a  strong  light.  A  case  has 
been  recorded  by  M.  Currier  of  this  latter  defect 
having  affected  eighty-five  members  of  the  same  fam- 
ily during  six  generations." a 

Dr.  Earle  likewise  gives  the  case  of  a  family  in 
which  a  defective  musical  ear  is  associated  with  an 
imperfect  appreciation  of  colors. 

In  a  family  of  my  acquaintance  a  peculiarity  in 
the  walk  is  hereditary. 

Kibot  says  that  in  some  families  the  hair  turns 
gray  in  early  youth,  and  similar  cases  have  come  under 
my  own  observation. 

The  loss  of  the  teeth,  when  a  particular  age  is 

1  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  vol.  xxxv.,  p.  347 ; 
quoted  in  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  1453. 
9  Darwin,  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  17. 
3  Darwin,  loc.  cit.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  19,  269. 


HEREDITY  OF  NORMAL  CHARACTERS.  21 

reached,  is  also  an  hereditary  character  in  many  fami- 
lies. 

Without  a  further  enumeration  of  details,  it  may 
be  said  that  every  peculiarity  of  the  animal  organiza- 
tion is  influenced  by  heredity. 


tf 

UNIVERSITY 


CHAPTER  III. 

HEREDITY    OF    DISEASES. 

ANY  abnormal  peculiarities  of  the  animal  organi- 
zation, constituting  disease,  whether  of  structure  or 
function,  are  liable  to  be  transmitted  from  parent  to 
offspring. 

"When  a  disease  is  characterized  by  obvious  struct- 
ural changes  in  any  part  of  the  system,  its  heredity 
is  seldom  called  in  question ;  but  when  it  consists  in  a 
simple  derangement  of  function,  without  any  apparent 
indications  of  structural  transformation,  its  hereditary 
character  is  frequently  overlooked.  As  the  progress 
of  physiological  science,  however,  makes  us  better 
acquainted  with  the  minute  structure  of  the  various 
organs  of  the  body,  and  the  relations  of  such  structure 
to  their  activity,  the  cases  of  functional  disturbance 
that  are  not  known  to  be  accompanied  by  correspond- 
ing changes  in  structure  have  rapidly  diminished,  and 
that  to  so  great  an  extent  that  it  seems  probable  that 
all  indications  of  disease  are  the  result  of  some  struct- 
ural modification  of  the  organs  involved. 

The  hereditary  transmission  of  some  peculiarity  in 
the  performance  of  the  function  of  an  organ,  without 
apparent  structural  change,  is  perhaps  not  more  diffi- 
cult to  understand  than  the  heredity  of  habits  that,  in 


HEREDITY  OF  DISEASES.  23 

themselves,  are  not  beneficial.  It  may,  in  fact,  be 
said  that  any  peculiarity  in  the  functional  activity  of 
an  organ,  if  long  continued,  may  result  in  a  habit  of 
the  system  which  the  offspring  will  in  all  probability 
inherit. 

Hereditary  disease  may  make  its  appearance  at  the 
time  of  birth,  when  it  is  said  to  be  congenital,  or  a 
considerable  length  of  time  may  elapse  before  any 
indications  of  its  presence  are  observed.  In  the  latter 
case  &  predisposition  or  tendency  to  the  disease  is  said 
to  be  inherited,  which  often  requires  some  external 
exciting  cause  for  its  full  development.1 

There  are  certain  diseases  that  are  transmitted 
with  greater  uniformity  than  others ;  yet  a  predispo- 
sition to  almost  every  known  form  of  disease  is  likely 
to  become  hereditary,  even  if  the  influence  that  deter- 
mines its  transmission  is  not  sufficiently  intense  to 
render  it  congenital.  It  is  not  my  purpose  to  describe 
or  even  enumerate  all  the  diseases  that  are  known  to 
be  hereditary,  but  to  notice  only  those  that  illustrate 
the  laws  of  hereditary  transmission,  or  that,  from 
their  frequent  occurrence,  are  of  particular  interest 
to  breeders  of  domestic  animals.  Under  the  general 
term  "  scrofula,"  a  great  variety  of  disorders  are  in- 
cluded, all  of  which  are  characterized  by  a  perversion 
of  the  nutritive  functions,  and  the  formation  of  pe- 
culiar tumors,  called  tubercles,  in  the  various  organs 
of  the  body.  The  most  common  forms  of  scrofulous 

1  Adams  on  " Hereditary  Diseases,"  p.  19;  Williams's  "Principles 
of  Medicine,"  p.  47;  Paget's  "Surgical  Pathology,"  p.  514;  "Cyclo- 
paedia of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  471 ;  Aitken's  "  Science 
and  Practice  of  Medicine,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  35. 


24  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

affections  are  consumption,  mesenteric  disease,  diar- 
rhoea, dysentery,  hydrocephalus,  and  glandular  swell- 
ings, the  symptoms  varying  with  the  organs  affected.1 

Scrofulous  diseases  are  of  common  occurrence  in 
horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  either  in  a  congenital 
form,  or  as  a  predisposition  that  may  be  actively  de- 
veloped at  any  period  of  life.  In  treating  of  the  he- 
reditary diseases  of  cattle,  Finlay  Dun  remarks  that 
"  a  tendency  to  consumption  and  to  dysentery  is  often 
indicated  by  certain  well-marked  signs.  In  cattle  the 
most  obvious  of  these  are  a  thin  and  often  appar- 
ently long  carcass,  narrow  loins  and  chest,  flat  ribs, 
undue  length  between  the  prominence  of  the  ilium 
and  the  last  ribs,  giving  a  hollow  appearance  to  the 
flanks,  extreme  thinness  and  fineness  of  the  neck  and 
withers,  hollowness  behind  the  ears,  fullness  under 
the  jaws,  a  small  and  narrow  muzzle,  .  .  .  hard,  un- 
yielding skin,  .  .  .  thin  and  dry  hair,  irregularity  in 
the  changing  of  the  coat,  inaptitude  for  fattening, 
prominence  of  the  bones,  especially  about  the  haunch 
and  tail,  and  want  of  harmony  among  the  different 
parts  of  the  body,  giving  the  animal  a  coarse  and  un- 
gainly look — appearances  all  indubitably  hereditary, 
and  indicative  of  a  weak  and  vitiated  constitution, 
and  of  a  decided  scrofulous  diathesis." a 

The  peculiarities  enumerated  are  all  indications  of 

1  For  a  more  extended  description  of  this  class  of  diseases  the  fol- 
lowing authorities  may  be  consulted :  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricult- 
ural Society,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  124,  vol.  xv.,  pp.  79,  82,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  21,  etc.; 
Aitken'a  "Science  and  Practice  of  Medicine,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  215;  Gross's 
"  System  of  Surgery,"  vol.  i.,  p.  264 ;  and  other  standard  medical  works. 

3  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society \  vol.  xv.,  p.  82. 


HEREDITY  OF  DISEASES.  25 

defective  nutrition,  which  is  the  essential  element  of 
the  disease. 

The  same  characters,  with  but  little  variation,  are 
also  indicative  of  the  scrofulous  habit  in  horses,  sheep, 
and  swine.1 

In  the  heredity  of  scrofula,  it  appears  that  the 
constitutional  defect  is  readily  transmitted;  but  it 
may  present  itself  in  a  different  form  from  that  ob- 
served in  the  generations  immediately  preceding.  If 
the  lungs  are  affected  in  one  generation,  the  inherited 
predisposition  of  the  next  may  consist  in  a  tendency 
to  glandular  swellings,  mesenteric  disease,  or  some 

1  Scrofula  in  its  various  forms  may  be  developed  in  animals  that 
are  not  predisposed  to  it  by  inheritance.  The  most  potent  causes  of 
the  disease  in  such  animals  are, -protracted  disorder  of  the  digestive 
organs,  food  deficient  in  quality  and  quantity,  impure  water,  confine- 
ment in  damp,  filthy  stables,  that  are  not  well  ventilated  nor  lighted, 
exposure  to  cold,  or  any  other  condition  that  lowers  the  vital  powers. 
The  too  common  practice  of  crowding  a  large  number  of  animals  into 
filthy  compartments,  that  are  not  well  ventilated,  is  undoubtedly  an 
efficient  cause  of  the  disease.  According  to  Dr.  Aitken,  "  the  broadest 
fact  established  regarding  the  exciting  cause  of  scrofula  is,  that  the 
domesticated  animal  is  more  liable  to  scrofulous  disease  than  the  same 
animal  in  the  wild  state.  The  stabled  cow,  the  penned  sheep,  the  tame 
rabbit,  the  monkey,  the  caged  lion,  tiger,  or  elephant,  are  almost  in- 
variably cut  off  by  scrofulous  affections — no  doubt  due  to  deficient 
ventilation,  and  the  abeyance  of  normal  exercise  of  the  pulmonary 
function  "  ("  Practice  of  Medicine,"  vol.  i.,  p.  234). 

When  the  predisposition  to  scrofula  is  inherited,  these  conditions 
will  be  intensified  in  their  action  as  exciting  causes  of  the  disease. 
Swine  are  said  to  be  particularly  liable  to  scrofulous  affections,  but  this 
is  not  surprising,  as  the  too  general  violation  of  sanitary  laws  that  pre- 
vails in  their  management  cannot  fail  to  develop  the  disease,  even  in 
cases  where  the  system  is  not  predisposed  to  it  by  inheritance.  Some 
of  the  most  fatal  epidemics  among  swine  may  be  caused,  in  part  at 
least,  by  the  development  of  scrofulous  disease. 


26  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

other  scrofulous  affection,  while  the  tendency  to  lung- 
disease  may  make  its  appearance  in  the  next  or  some 
subsequent  generation. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  all  so-called  "  constitu- 
tional diseases,"  the  organ  affected  determining  the 
character  of  the  symptoms  that  indicate  the  presence 
of  the  general  defect  of  the  system. 

When  the  general  constitutional  predisposition  is 
inherited,  the  conditions  to  which  the  animal  is  sub- 
jected as  to  food,  exposure,  etc.,  may  have  an  influ- 
ence in  determining  the  particular  organ  in  which  the 
disease  is  developed.1 

Dr.  Gross  says,  "  The  children  of  consumptive  par- 
ents are  often  cut  off  by  the  same  disease,  or  they 
suffer  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  as  the  bones  and 
joints,  lymphatic  ganglions,  eye,  ear,  and  serous  mem- 
branes." a 

In  1,000  cases  of  consumption  tabulated  by  Dr. 
Cotton,  367  were  hereditary,  and  of  these  the  brothers 
or  sisters  were  likewise  affected  in  126  cases.  Of  the 
114  males  whose  parents  were  affected,  59  inherited 
the  disease  from  the  father,  40  from  the  mother,  and 
15  from  both.  Of  the  127  females  whose  parents 

1  The  injudicious  use  of  active  medicines  may  also  be  mentioned  as 
an  efficient  exciting  cause  of  the  development  of  a  disease  to  which  the 
animal  is  predisposed,  and  the  organs  subjected  to  the  action  of  such 
medicines  will  in  all  probability  become  the  seat  of  the  affection.  A 
severe  cathartic,  for  example,  may  thus  develop  the  hereditary  tendency 
to  chronic  diarrhoea  or  dysentery ;  or  a  profuse  bloodletting  may  lower 
the  general  tone  of  the  system,  and  thus  favor  the  influence  of  other 
depressing  agencies  in  developing  the  disease. 

8  "System  of  Surgery,"  vol.  i.,  p.  265.  Sec  also  Dr.  Allen  on  "He- 
reditary Disease,"  p.  7. 


HEREDITY  OF  DISEASES.  27 

were  affected,  53  inherited  the  disease  from  the  fa- 
ther, 62  from  the  mother,  and  12  from  both.1 

A  comparison  of  1,031  consumptives  with  1,031 
non-consumptives,  insured  in  the  Mutual  Life  In- 
surance Company  of  New  York,  shows  that  "  nearly 
twice  as  many  of  the  former  had  consumptive  blood- 
relations  as  of  the  latter,  or,  to  speak  more  accurately, 
18.81  per  cent,  of  the  consumptives,  and  only  10.89 
per  cent,  of  the  non-consumptives,  had  near  relations 
(parents  or  brothers  or  sisters)  who  died  of  consump- 
tion." 

These  "  cases  were  all  healthy  lives,  selected  after 
medical  examination,  and  one  of  the  rules  of  this  ex- 
amination tended  to  exclude  persons  with  a  decided 
family  taint ;  hence  we  should  expect  to  find  here  a 
much  smaller  number  of  tainted  families  than  among 
consumptives  in  general." a 

The  transmission  of  mental  peculiarities,  referred 
to  in  the  preceding  chapter,  is  not  confined  to  those 
idiosyncrasies  that  are  compatible  with  what  may  be 
termed  a  healthy  condition  of  the  nervous  system,  but 
extend  also  to  the  various  forms  of  mental  disease. 
Among  1,375  lunatics,  Esquirol  found  337  cases  of 
hereditary  transmission.* 

In  50  cases  of  insanity  examined  by  Maudsley,  16 

1  "  On  the  Nature,  Symptoms,  and  Treatment  of  Consumption,"  by 
R.  P.  Cotton,  M.  D.,  London,  1852,  p.  61 ;  quoted  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  35. 

2  "  Mortuary  Experience  of  the  Mutual  Life  Insurance  Company  of 
New  York,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  71-73. 

3  Popular  Science  Monthly,  November,  1873,  p.  58 ;  London  Lancet, 
quoted  in  the  Pacific  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  February,  1877, 
p.  406. 


28  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

were  hereditary.  In  73  cases  given  by  Trelat,  43  are 
represented  as  due  to  heredity.  "  From  a  report  made 
to  the  French  Government  in  1861,  it  appears  that,  in 
1,000  cases  of  persons  of  each  sex  admitted  to  asy- 
lums, 264  males  and  266  females  had  inherited  the 
disease.  Of  the  264  males,  128  inherited  from  the 
father,  110  from  the  mother,  and  26  from  both.  Of 
the  266  females,  100  inherited  from  the  father,  130 
from  the  mother,  and  36  from  both." * 

Dr.  Hammond  remarks  that  the  hereditary  ten- 
dency to  insanity  is  shown  "  not  only  by  the  fact  that 
ancestors  have  been  insane,  but  that  insanity  in  the 
descendants  may  have  resulted  from  hysteria,  epi-. 
lepsy,  catalepsy,  or  some  other  general  nervous  affec- 
tion in  them." a 

Bone-spavin,  curbs,  ring-bone,  navicular  disease, 
and  other  similar  affections  of  the  bones  and  joints, 
are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  hereditary  form. 

Many  cases  are  on  record  illustrating  the  heredity 
of  this  class  of  diseases,  which  we  need  not  quote,  as 
the  fact  of  their  transmission  is  familiar  to  every  one. 
But  a  single  case  will  be  given,  that  came  under  my 
observation  several  years  ago. 

A  mare  affected  with  ring-bone,  that  unfitted  her 
for  farm-work,  was  kept  as  a  breeder  for  several  years. 
Her  colts  were  quite  uniform  in  form  and  color,  and, 
as  they  showed  no  indications  of  the  disease  when  two 
or  three  years  old,  they  found  ready  buyers  at  good 
prices. 

At  the  age  of  five  or  six  years,  however,  they  all 

1  Ribot,  "  Heredity,"  p.  131. 

2  "  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System,"  p.  376. 


HEREDITY  OF  DISEASES.  29 

had  ring-bone,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  several 
were  entirely  disabled. 

In  horses,  strain  of  the  back-tendons,  swelled  legs, 
grease,  and  roaring,  are  often  hereditary ;  while  a  pre- 
disposition to  rheumatism,  malignant  and  non-malig- 
nant tumors,  chronic  cough,  ophthalmia  and  blind- 
ness, epilepsy,  and  a  great  variety  of  nervous  disorders, 
is  inherited  by  them  in  common  with  cattle,  sheep, 
and  swine.1 

Lucas  says,  "  A  blind  beggar  was  the  father  of  four 
sons  and  a  daughter,  all  blind.  Dufau,  in  his  work 
on  c  Blindness,'  cites  the  cases  of  twenty-one  persons 
blind  from  birth,  or  soon  after,  whose  ancestors — fa- 
ther, mother,  grandparents,  and  uncles — had  some 
serious  affection  of  the  eyes." a 

According  to  M.  Trehonnais,  a  stallion,  in  France, 
became  blind  from  the  effects  of  disease,  and  all  of 
his  progeny  had  the  same  defect  before  reaching  the 
age  of  three  years.3 

Dr.  Dun  says  that  "a  very  large  number  of  the 
stock  of  the  celebrated  Irish  horse  Cregan  have  be- 
come affected  by  ophthalmia  of  the  worst  kind.  I 
am  told  by  a  gentleman  well  acquainted  with  this 
stock  that  the  tendency  is  still  decidedly  marked,  even 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  generations,  often  appearing, 
and  sometimes  speedily  causing  blindness  very  early 

1  "  Encyclopedic  Pratique  de  PAgricuIteur,"  tome  viii.,  p.  678.     See 
also  a  series  of  articles  on  "  Hereditary  Diseases,"  by  Finlay  Dun,  in 
the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vols,  xiv.,  xv.,  xvi. 

2  Quoted  from  Kibot  on  "  Heredity,"  p.  40.     See  also  Darwin's 
"Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  18. 

3  "  Encyclopedic  Pratique  de  PAgricuIteur,"  tome  viii.,  p.  678.     See 
also  "  The  Horse,"  by  Youatt,  p.  115. 


30  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

in  life,  as  at  two  or  three  years  of  age,  and  even  be- 
fore the  animals  have  been  exposed  to  what  are  con- 
sidered the  ordinary  exciting  causes  of  ophthalmia."  * 

M.  Pauli  gives  the  case  of  a  family  of  nine  chil- 
dren who  were  all  born  blind.  Sir  Henry  Holland 
states  that  four  out  of  five  children  in  one  family  be- 
came blind  at  the  age  of  about  twelve  years,  the  he- 
reditary character  of  the  defect  being  confirmed  by 
"  the  existence  of  a  family  monument,  long  prior  in 
date,  where  a  female  ancestor  is  represented  with 
several  children  around  her,  the  inscription  recording 
that  all  the  number  were  blind." 

"  In  the  family  of  Le  Compte,  thirty-seven  chil- 
dren and  grandchildren  became  blind  like  himself, 
and  the  blindness  in  this  case  occurred  about  the  age 
of  seventeen  or  eighteen  years,  for  three  successive 
generations." a 

Dr.  Dun  gives  the  case  of  a  stallion  that,  at  the 
age  of  four  years,  "  appeared  perfectly  sound,  and  his 
limbs  were  nearly  black,  well  formed,  and  fine  ;  with- 
in a  short  time,  however,  they  became  thick  and 
greasy.  And,  although  the  mares  to  which  he  was 
put  were  perfectly  free  from  such  faults,  the  progeny 
have  shown,  in  every  case  where  they  can  be  traced, 
unmistakable  evidence  of  their  inheriting  the  greasy 
diathesis  of  their  sire.  They  have  all  been  found 
liable  to  swelled  legs  when  they  stand  idle  for  a  few 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  120. 

8  The  last  three  cases  are  copied  from  Mr.  Sedgwick's  paper  in  the 
British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  April,  1861,  p.  260. 
The  case  of  the  Le  Compte  family  was  originally  reported  in  the  BaUi 
more  Medical  and  Physical  Register,  1809. 


HEREDITY   OF  DISEASES.  31 

days  ;  most  of  them  have  been  the  subjects  of  repeat- 
ed attacks  of  weed ;  all  are  affected,  particularly  in 
the  spring,  with  scurfiness  of  the  skin  of  the  hind  ex- 
tremities, and  excessive  itchiness,  and  lose  at  a  very 
early  age  their  flatness  and  smoothness  of  limb." 

"  The  faults  occur,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  in 
all  the  stock  of  this  horse  by  many  different  mares, 
and  are  distinctly  traceable  to  the  third  generation." l 

The  following  case  of  bilateral  symmetry  in  the 
heredity  of  bony  tumors,  reported  by  Dr.  Paget,  is  of 
particular  interest,  as  it  illustrates  a  peculiarity  which 
is  also  observed  in  other  diseases  :  "  A  boy,  six  years 
old,  was  in  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  five  years  ago, 
who  had  symmetrical  tumors  on  the  lower  ends  of  his 
radii,  on  his  humeri,  his  scapulae,  his  fifth  and  sixth 
ribs,  his  fibulse,  and  internal  malleoli.  On  each  of 
these  bones,  on  each  side,  he  had  one  tumor,  and  the 
only  deviations  from  symmetry  were  that  he  had  an 
unmatched  tumor  on  the  ulnar  side  of  the  first  pha- 
lanx of  his  right  forefinger,  and  that  each  of  the 
tumors  on  the  right  side  was  rather  larger  than  its 
fellow  on  the  left.  I  saw  this  child's  father,  a  healthy 
laboring-man,  forty  years  old,  who  had  as  many,  or 
even  more,  tumors  of  the  same  kind  as  his  son ;  but 
only  a  few  of  them  were  in  the  same  positions.  All 
these  tumors  had  existed  from  his  earliest  childhood  ; 
they  were  symmetrically  placed,  and  ceased  to  grow 
when  he  attained  his  full  stature  ;  since  that  time  they 
had  undergone  no  apparent  change.  None  of  this 
man's  direct  ancestors,  nor  any  other  of  his  children, 
had  similar  growths ;  but  four  cousins,  one  female 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  122. 


32  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

and  three  male  children  of  his  mother's  sisters,  had  as 
many  of  them  as  himself." J 

The  inherited  predisposition  to  any  form  of  dis- 
ease may  be  derived  from  either  or  both  parents,  but, 
in  the  latter  case,  it  is  also  likely  to  be  intensified  by 
being  made  a  dominant  character.3 

The  hereditary  predisposition  to  disease  may  not 
be  observed  in  a  particular  individual,  but  its  recur- 
rence in  the  offspring  shows  that  the  defect  has  been 
inherited,  and  likewise  transmitted.  In  such  cases 
the  influence  of  favorable  sanitary  conditions  may 
have  been  sufficient  to  counteract  the  inherited  ten- 
dency in  some  degree,  or  the  absence  of  exciting 
causes  may  have  prevented  its  development,  with- 
out interfering  with  the  potency  of  its  transmission 
to  the  next  generation.  The  hereditary  predispo- 
sition may  thus  be  suspended  for  several  genera- 
tions,  and  then  reappear  with  an  intensity  that  in- 
dicates the  marked  persistence  of  the  hereditary 
taint,  even  in  individuals  that  seem  to  be  exempt 
from  it. 

The  inherited  predisposition  to  disease,  in  indi- 
viduals apparently  free  from  it,  may  often  be  detected 
by  its  repeated  occurrence  in  some  collateral  branches 
of  the  family.  This  alternation  in  the  development 
of  hereditary  disease  is  observed,  not  in  rare  instances 
only,  but  so  frequently  that  it  seems  to  be  the  rule, 

1  "  Surgical  Pathology,"  p.  465. 

8  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  471 ;  Car- 
penter's "  Mental  Physiology,"  p.  369 ;  London  Lancet,  quoted  in  the 
Pacific  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  February,  1877,  p.  408.  (For 
dominant  characters  see  pp.  77  and  78.) 


HEREDITY  OF  DISEASES.  S3 

rather  than  the  exception,  in  the  transmission  of  con- 
stitutional peculiarities. 

In  speaking  of  the  heredity  of  cancer,  Dr.  Paget 
says  :  "  Let  it  be  observed,  this  tendency  to  cancerous 
disease  is  most  commonly  derived  from  a  parent  who 
is  not  yet  manifestly  cancerous ;  for,  most  commonly, 
the  children  are  born  before  cancer  is  evident  in  the 
parent;  so  that,  as  we  may  say,  that  which  is  still 
future  to  the  parent  is  transmitted  potentially  to  the 
offspring.  Nay,  more,  the  tendency  which  exists  in 
the  parent  may  never  become  in  him  or  her  effective, 
although  it  may  become  effective  in  the  offspring; 
for  there  are  cases  in  which  a  grandparent  has  been 
cancerous,  and,  although  his  or  her  children  have  not 
been  so,  the  grandchildren  have  been.  Let  me  repeat, 
the  cases  of  hereditary  cancer  only  illustrate  the  com- 
mon rule  of  the  transmission  of  hereditary  properties, 
whether  natural  or  morbid.  Just  as  the  parent,  in 
the  perfection  of  maturity,  transmits  to  the  offspring 
those  conditions,  in  germ  and  rudimental  substance, 
which  shall  be  changed  into  the  exact  imitation  of  the 
parent's  self,  not  only  in  the  fullness  of  health,  but  in 
all  the  infirmities  of  yet  future  age ;  so,  also,  even  in 
seeming  health,  the  same  parent  may  communicate  to 
the  materials  of  the  offspring  the  rudiments  of  yet 
future  diseases ;  and  these  rudiments  must,  in  the  case 
before  us,  be  such  modifications  of  natural  composi- 
tions as,  in  the  course  of  many  years,  shall  be  devel- 
oped or  degenerate  into  materials  that  will  manifest 
themselves  in  the  production  of  cancer." 1 

In  the  cases  of  hereditary  disease  already  noticed, 

1  "  Surgical  Pathology,"  p.  639. 


34:  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

the  defect  in  the  system  of  the  ancestors  is  apparently 
transmitted  directly  to  the  offspring,  where  it  makes 
its  appearance  in  the  congenital  form  or  as  a  predis- 
position. 

Animals  that  are,  however,  free  from  constitu- 
tional taint,  may  transmit  indirectly  to  their  offspring 
a  predisposition  to  certain  forms  of  disease,  through  a 
faulty  conformation  or  proportion  of  the  organization, 
that  can  hardly  be  considered  abnormal. 

Animals  inheriting  such  peculiarities  of  structure 
may  remain  healthy  under  favorable  conditions ;  but 
they  are  liable  to  disease,  from  the  effects  of  exposure 
or  hard  work,  that  would  not  be  injurious  to  those 
with  a  better-proportioned  organization. 

According  to  Finlay  Dun,  a  disproportion  in  the 
width  and  strength  of  the  leg  below  the  hock  to  the 
width  and  strength  above  the  hock,  predisposes  to 
spavin ;  a  straight  hock  and  a  short  os  calcis,  inclin- 
ing forward,  gives  a  tendency  to  curbs ;  "  round  legs 
and  small  knees,  to  which  the  tendons  are  tightly 
bound,  are  especially  subject  to  strains  ; "  while  a  pre- 
disposition to  navicular  disease  is  found  "in  horses 
with  narrow  chests,  upright  pasterns,  and  out-turned 
toes." 1 

"Many  farm -horses,  as  well  as  others  without 
much  breeding,  are  remarkable  for  consuming  large 
quantities  of  food,  for  soft  and  flabby  muscular  sys- 
tems, and  for  round  limbs  containing  an  unusual  pro- 
portion of  cellular  tissue.  These  characters  are  no- 
toriously hereditary,  of  which  indubitable  evidence  is 
afforded  by  their  existence  in  many  different  indi- 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  115. 


HEREDITY  OF  DISEASES.  35 

viduals  of  the  same  stock,  and  their  long  continuance, 
even  under  the  best  management  and  most  efficient 
systems  of  breeding.  Such  characters  indicate  pro- 
clivity to  certain  diseases,  as  swelled  legs,  weed,  and 
grease." 1 

If  the  leg  below  the  hock  is  disproportionately 
long,  and  the  os  calcis  is  short  (giving  a  narrow  hock), 
a  strain  of  the  joint,  or  some  other  form  of  disease,  is 
liable  to  result  from  an  amount  of  work  that  would 
not  be  severe  in  a  limb  of  proper  proportions. 

Any  marked  dilatation  or  contraction  of  the  blood- 
vessels gives  a  tendency  to  irregularities  of  the  circu- 
lation when  the  work  performed  is  severe,  and  a  con- 
sequent predisposition  to  congestion  or  inflammation 
of  important  organs. 

Like  an  engine  with  a  fly-wheel  that  is  not  per- 
fectly balanced,  the  animal  organization  of  faulty  pro- 
portions is  enabled  to  perform  a  moderate  amount  of 
work  without  difficulty ;  but,  when  the  machinery  is 
taxed  nearly  to  its  full  capacity,  the  defective  adjust- 
ment becomes  a  source  of  danger,  involving  the  in- 
tegrity of  other  parts  of  the  system. 

This  indirect  transmission  of  a  predisposition  to 
disease,  through  a  faulty  proportion  of  parts,  is  of 
frequent  occurrence,  and  it  will  undoubtedly  explain 
many  of  the  cases  of  disease  appearing  suddenly, 
without  apparent  cause,  and  in  which  an  heredi- 
tary taint  was  not  suspected,  from  the  fact  that  the 
ancestors  were  not  affected  with  the  disease  in  any 
form. 

This  form  of  hereditary  transmission  furnishes  a 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society^  vol.  xiv.,  p.  121. 


36  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

good  illustration  of  the  importance,  to  the  breeder,  of 
a  knowledge  of  all  the  details  of  structure  and  confor- 
mation of  the  animal  system,  and  the  relations  of 
peculiarities  of  form  to  strength  and  constitutional 
vigor. 

The  offspring  of  animals  that  are  very  young,  with 
a  system  immature  or  imperfectly  developed,  or  of 
those  that  have  had  their  constitution  impaired  by 
abuse  or  overwork,  will  inherit  a  condition  of  the  sys- 
tem that  predisposes  to  attacks  of  disease  from  slight 
exciting  causes. 

The  effects  may  not  be  observed  in  all  cases  in  a 
single  generation,  but,  if  the  practice  of  breeding  from 
such  imperfect  organizations  is  continued  for  several 
successive  generations,  the  most  unfavorable  results 
may  be  produced. 

It  is  stated  that  "precocious  marriages  are  not  only 
less  fertile,  but  the  children  also  which  are  the  result 
of  them  have  an  increased  rate  of  mortality." l 

Dr.  Duncan  adds  "  the  evidence  of  two  gentlemen 
skilled  in  the  breeding  of  lambs  and  calves.  They 
say  that  the  mortality  of  the  young  of  these  animals, 
when  the  mothers  are  immature,  is  much  greater  than 
when  they  are  well  grown." 

"  One  of  them  says :  '  Taking  the  first  lamb  from 
ewes  at  one  year  old  has  in  almost  every  case  failed 
to  be  remunerative,  owing  to  the  frequent  death  of 
the  lambs.'  The  same  may  be  said  of  young  heifers, 
though  the  mortality  of  the  offspring  may  not  be  so 
marked  as  in  that  of  sheep." a 

1  Dr.  Duncan,  "  Fecundity,  Fertility,  and  Sterility,"  p.  38. 
*  Ibid.,  p.  390. 


HEREDITY  OF  DISEASES.  37 

The  same  author  says :  "  Childbearing  by  an  im- 
mature mother  is  popularly  held  to  be  dangerous  to 
the  continued  general  health  of  the  mother,  and  to 
prevent  her  complete  development  in  size  and  beauty. 
I  have  no  positive  evidence  to  adduce  in  favor  of  this 
generally-entertained  notion,  which  my  own  experi- 
ence appears  to  me  to  confirm.  ...  In  its  corrobora- 
tion,  however,  I  can  adduce  the  ample  experience  of 
eminent  breeders  of  the  lower  animals.  I  have  had 
this  opinion  expressed  to  me,  especially  in  regard  to 
mares,  cows,  ewes,  and  bitches." l 

Many  other  authorities  might  be  cited  to  the  same 
effect,  were  it  not  that  the  influence  of  early  breeding 
in  arresting  the  development  of  the  mother  is  so  often 
observed  by  intelligent  breeders  as  to  render  it  unne- 
cessary. 

In  oviparous  animals  it  has  been  observed,  not 
only  that  the  eggs  of  very  young  females  are  less  in 
number  and  smaller  than  those  produced  at  maturity, 
but  that  a  larger  proportion  are  not  fertile,  the  yelk 
being  frequently  wanting  or  imperfect.  And  also,  in 
other  groups  of  animals,  that  the  number  of  young 
produced  at  a  birth  is  less  with  young  mothers  than 
with  those  that  are  fully  developed.3 

Geyelin  says:  "It  has  been  ascertained  that  the 
ovarium  of  a  fowl  is  composed  of  six  hundred  ovules, 
or  eggs;  therefore  a  hen,  during  the  whole  of  her 
life,  cannot  possibly  lay  more  eggs  than  six  hundred, 
which,  in  a  natural  course,  are  distributed  over  nine 
years,  in  the  following  proportions : 

1  Dr.  Duncan,  "  Fecundity,  Fertility,  and  Sterility,"  p.  392. 

2  Ibid.,  pp.  38,  65,  70. 


38  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

"First  year  after  birth       .        .        .        .  15  to    20 

Second   u      "        "     .        .        .        .  100  "  120 

Third      "      "        "          ....  120  "  135 

Fourth   "      "        "     .        .        .        .  100  "  115 

Fifth       "      "         "          ....  60  "     80 

Sixth      """....  50  "     60 

Seventh  "      "        "          ....  35  "    40 

Eighth    """....  15  "    20 

Ninth      «     «        «          ....  1  "    10 '" 

Dr.  Duncan,  in  summing  up  the  results  of  an  ex- 
tended collection  of  statistics  relating  to  births,  shows 
that  a  similar  law  prevails  among  women.  While 
those  under  twenty  years  of  age  are  less  fecund  than 
those  between  twenty  and  twenty-four,  a  gradual  in- 
crease in  productiveness  is  made  to  the  age  of  thirty 
years,  which  is  the  most  prolific  age,  after  which  a 
rapid  decrease  in  fertility  takes  place.9 

The  influence  of  diminished  fecundity  in  young 
mothers  upon  their  offspring,  that  necessarily  inherit 
the  same  peculiarity,  would  tend  to  predispose  to  bar- 
renness and  sterility  in  the  breed  or  family  in  which 
early  breeding  is  frequently  practised  ;  while  the  de- 
fective development  of  the  mother,  arising  from  the 
same  cause,  would  become  a  constitutional  peculiarity 
in  the  offspring. 

As  the  retarded  development  of  the  mother  and 
the  defective  condition  of  the  germ  or  egg  are  both 
the  result  of  immaturity,  and  a  consequent  deficiency 
in  constitutional  vigor,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  will 
undoubtedly  be  transmitted,  they  must  have  a  marked 

1  "  Poultry-Breeding,"  p.  27. 

a  Dr.  Duncan,  "  Fecundity,  Fertility,  and  Sterility,"  as  quoted  in 
Walford's  "  Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  Hi.,  p.  194. 


HEREDITY  OF  DISEASES.  39 

influence  in  producing  conditions  of  the  system  that 
predispose  to  disease.1 

1  In  addition  to  authorities  quoted,  see  Duckham's  "  Lecture  on 
Hereford  Cattle,"  p.  6;  Youatt  on  "Cattle,"  p.  626;  Youatt  on  "The 
Horse,"  p.  221. 


CHAPTEK  IY. 

HEREDITY   OF  ACQUIRED   AND   ABNORMAL   CHARACTERS. 

THE  habits  and  characteristics  of  animals  that  have 
been  developed  by  the  conditions  in  which  they  are 
placed,  or  the  peculiar  training  they  have  received  at 
the  hands  of  man,  appear  to  be  transmitted  from  gen- 
eration to  generation,  with  nearly  the  same  certainty 
and  uniformity  as  those  that  characterize  the  original 
type  or  species  from  which  they  are  descended. 

Some  of  the  most  striking  illustrations  of  this  form 
of  heredity  are  to  be  found  in  the  transmission  of  the 
highly-artificial  peculiarities  that  characterize  the  vari- 
ous improved  breeds  of  animals.  The  tendency  to 
lay  on  fat  rapidly  and  to  mature  early  is  inherited  in 
the  best  families  of  the  Short-horns — the  Devons,  the 
Herefords,  and  other  meat-producing  breeds — while 
the  ability  to  secrete  an  abundant  supply  of  milk  is, 
in  like  manner,  perpetuated  in  the  Ayrshires,  the  Jer- 
seys, and  other  dairy  breeds. 

The  certainty  with  which  these  acquired  qualities 
are  transmitted  constitutes  one  of  the  most  valuable 
peculiarities  of  a  breed. 

The  American  trotting -horse  furnishes  another 
illustration  of  the  inheritance  of  acquired  characters. 

The  various  breeds  of  dogs  have  peculiarities  that 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL  CHARACTERS.          41 

have  been  developed  by  a  long  course  of  training, 
which  are  transmitted  with  a  uniformity  that  is  sur- 
prising. Young  setters,  pointers,  and  retrievers,  that 
have  never  been  in  the  field,  will  often  "  work  "  with 
as  much  steadiness  and  ability  as  those  that  have  had 
a  long  experience  in  sporting. 

In  such  cases,  however,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
ancestors,  immediate  or  remote,  have  been  well  trained 
in  their  special  methods  of  hunting. 

The  shepherd-dog  is  remarkable  for  its  sagacity 
and  the  persistence  with  which  it  carries  out  the 
wishes  of  its  master ;  and  it  would  be  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  train  dogs  of  any  other  breeds  to  equal 
them  in  their  special  duties.  The  greyhound  runs  by 
sight,  and  the  blood-hound  by  scent,  and  their  offspring 
all  inherit  the  same  peculiarities. 

"  The  curious  fact  was  observed  by  Mr.  Knight, 
that  the  young  of  a  breed  of  springing  spaniels  which 
had  been  trained  for  several  successive  generations  to 
find  woodcocks  seemed  to  know  as  well  as  the  old 
dogs  what  degree  of  frost  would  drive  the  birds  to 
seek  their  food  in  unfrozen  springs  and  rills."  *  . 

"  A  new  instinct  has  also  become  hereditary  in  a 
mongrel  race  of  dogs  employed  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  banks  of  the  Magdalena  almost  exclusively  in 
hunting  the  white-lipped  peccary.  The  address  of 
these  dogs  consists  in  restraining  their  ardor  and  at- 
taching themselves  to  no  individual  in  particular,  but 
keeping  the  whole  in  check.  JSTow,  among  these  dogs 
some  are  found  which,  the  very  first  time  they  are 
taken  to  the  woods,  are  acquainted  with  this  mode  of 

1  Carpenter's  "  Mental  Physiology,"  p.  104. 
3 


42  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

attack,  whereas  a  dog  of  another  breed  starts  forward 
at  once,  is  surrounded  by  the  peccaries,  and,  whatever 
may  be  his  strength,  is  destroyed  in  a  moment." l 

"  A  race  of  dogs  employed  for  hunting  deer  in  the 
platform  of  Santa  Fe,  in  Mexico,  is  distinguished  by 
the  peculiar  mode  in  which  they  attack  their  game. 
This  consists  in  seizing  the  animal  by  the  belly  and 
overturning  it  by  a  sudden  effort,  taking  advantage 
of  the  moment  when  the  body  of  the  deer  rests  only 
upon  the  forelegs,  the  weight  of  the  animal  thus 
thrown  being  often  six  times  that  of  its  antagonist. 
Now,  the  dog  of  pure  breed  inherits  a  disposition  to 
this  kind  of  chase,  and  never  attacks  a  deer  from 
before  while  running ;  and  even  should  the  deer, 
not  perceiving  him,  come  directly  upon  him,  the  dog 
steps  aside,  and  makes  his  assault  upon  the  flank.  On 
the  other  hand,  European  dogs,  though  of  superior 
strength  and  general  sagacity,  are  destitute  of  this 
instinct,  and,  for  want  of  similar  precautions,  they 
are  often  killed  by  the  deer  on  the  spot,  the  cervical 
vertebrae  being  dislocated  by  the  violence  of  the 
shock."1 

Mr.  Lewes  "  had  a  puppy  taken  from  its  mother 
at  six  weeks  old,  who,  although  never  taught  to  '  beg  • 
(an  accomplishment  his  mother  had  been  taught), 
spontaneously  took  to  begging  for  everything  he 
wanted,  when  about  seven  or  eight  months  old ;  he 
would  beg  for  food,  beg  to  be  let  out  of  the  room, 
and  one  day  was  found  opposite  a  rabbit-hutch, 

1  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  1303 ;  Can 
pcnter's  "  Comparative  Physiology,"  p.  627. 

*  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  1303. 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL  CHARACTERS.  43 

apparently  begging   the   rabbits   to   come    out  and 

plaj."1 

A  dog,  owned  bj  myself  several  years  ago,  inher- 
ited the  same  accomplishment  from  his  mother,  who 
had  been  trained  to  sit  in  an  erect  position  and  hold  a 
stick  in  imitation  of  a  soldier  with  a  musket. 

This  dog  was  taken  from  his  mother  when  but  a 
few  days  old,  and  before  it  had  an  opportunity  of 
learning  any  tricks  by  imitation.  "Without  any  train- 
ing, when  a  few  months  old,  he  assumed  the  erect 
position  whenever  anything  was  wanted,  and,  if  that 
did  not  attract  attention,  he  would  "  speak,"  with  a 
short  bark,  as  his  mother  had  been  in  the  habit  of  doing. 

Dr.  H.  B.  Shank,  of  Lansing,  informs  me  that  a 
cat,  owned  by  him,  had  learned  to  open  doors  that 
were  secured  with  a  latch,  and  all  of  her  descendants 
inherited  the  same  peculiarity ;  while  another  family 
of  cats,  brought  up  with  them,  did  not  learn  the  trick, 
although  they  had  sufficient  intelligence  to  ask  the 
assistance  of  their  more  expert  friends  when  they 
wanted  a  door  opened. 

Girou  de  Buzarringues  reports  the  frequently- 
quoted  case  of  "  a  man  who  had  the  habit,  when  in 
bed,  of  lying  on  his  back  and  crossing  the  right  leg 
over  the  left.  One  of  his  daughters  had  the  same 
habit  from  birth,  and  constantly  assumed  that  position 
in  the  cradle." a 

Darwin  reports  the  interesting  case  of  a  boy  who 
"  had  the  singular  habit,  when  pleased,  of  rapidly 

1  Herbert  Spencer,  "  Principles  of  Biology,"  vol.  i.,  p.  247 ;  Goodale, 
'  "Principles  of  Breeding,"  p.  26. 

2  Quoted  from  Ribot  on  "  Heredity,"  p.  8. 


44:  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

moving  his  fingers  parallel  to  each  other,  and,  when 
much  excited,  of  raising  both  hands,  with  the  fingers 
still  moving,  to  the  sides  of  his  face  on  a  level  with  the 
eyes ;  this  boy,  when  almost  an  old  man,  could  hardly 
resist  this  trick  when  much  pleased,  but,  from  its  ab- 
surdity, concealed  it.  He  had  eight  children.  Of 
these  a  girl,  when  pleased,  at  the  age  of  four  and  a 
half  years  moved  her  fingers  exactly  in  the  same  way, 
and,  what  is  still  odder,  when  much  excited  she  raised 
both  her  hands,  with  her  fingers  still  moving,  to  the 
sides  of  her  face,  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  her 
father  had  done,  and  sometimes  still  continued  to  do 
when  alone."  * 

The  handwriting  of  members  of  the  same  family 
is  said  to  frequently  present  a  marked  resemblance ; 
"  and  it  has  been  asserted  that  English  boys,  when 
taught  to  write  in  France,  naturally  cling  to  their 
English  manner  of  writing." a 

"  There  are  families  in  which  the  special  use  of 
the  left  hand  is  hereditary.  Girou  mentions  a  family 
in  which  the  father,  the  children,  and  most  of  the 
grandchildren,  were  left-handed.  One  of  the  latter 
betrayed  its  left-handedness  from  earliest  infancy,  nor 
could  it  be  broken  of  the  habit,  though  the  left  hand 
was  bound  and  swathed."  * 

Dr.  Eugene  Dupuy  states  that  "he  owed  to  his 
friend  Dr.  Gibney  the  opportunity  of  observing  a 
family  consisting  of  father  and  mother,  five  children, 
and  one  grandchild. 

1  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  15. 
9  Ibid. ;  Ribot  on  "  Heredity,"  p.  9. 
8  Ibid.,  p.  38. 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL  CHARACTERS.  45 

"  The  father  and  mother  were  semi-ambidextrous. 
All  the  children  and  the  grandchild  are  ambidextrous 
to  an  annoying  degree ;  all  of  the  movements  which 
they  perform  with  one  hand  are  simultaneously  per- 
formed by  the  other  hand.  The  girls  are  obliged  to 
use  only  one  hand  when  dressing  themselves,  or  when 
cutting  patterns,  and  hold  the  other  hand  down  by 
their  side,  because  the  two  hands  perform  the  same 
movements  at  the  same  time,  and  would  interfere 
with  each  other. 

"  Attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that  the  father 
of  the  grandchild  is  not  semi-ambidextrous. 

"  Dr.  Dupuy  has  made  experiments  upon  these 
persons,  and  has  found  that,  if  the  skin  of  the  fore- 
arm on  one  side  be  kept  well  dry,  and  a  rapidly-inter- 
rupted electrical  current  be  used,  so  as  only  to  call 
forth  reflex  actions,  it  is  possible  to  induce  synchro- 
nous movements  in  the  fingers  of  both  hands,  and  also 
muscular  contraction  in  the  lumbricales  muscles  of  the 
fingers,  which  are  too  rapid  to  be  carried  on  by  the 
will."1 

Wild  animals,  living  on  islands  not  often  visited 
by  man,  do  not  fear  him,  but  allow  the  closest  ap- 
proach without  hesitation. 

"When  the  Falkland  Islands  were  first  visited  by 
man,  the  large,  wolf -like  dog  (Canis  antarcticus)  fear- 
lessly came  to  meet  Byron's  sailors,  who,  mistaking 
this  ignorant  curiosity  for  ferocity,  ran  into  the  water 
to  avoid  them.  Even  recently,  a  man,  by  holding  a 
piece  of  meat  in  one  hand  and  a  knife  in  the  other, 

1  "  Proceedings  of  the  American  Neurological  Association,"  in  the 
Virginia  Medical  Monthly,  August,  1877,  p.  392. 


46  PKINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

could  sometimes  stick  them  at  night.  On  an  island 
in  the  sea  of  Aral,  when  first  discovered  by  Butakoff, 
the  saigak  antelopes,  which  are  '  generally  very  timid 
and  watchful,  did  not  fly  from  us,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, looked  at  us  with  a  sort  of  curiosity.' 

"  So,  again,  on  the  shores  of  the  Mauritius,  the 
manatee  was  not,  at  first,  in  the  least  afraid  of  man, 
and  thus  it  has  been  in  several  quarters  of  the  world 
with  seals  and  the  morse.  I  have  shown  elsewhere 
how  slowly  the  native  birds  of  several  islands  have 
acquired  and  inherited  a  salutary  dread  of  man;  at 
the  Galapagos  Archipelago  I  pushed,  with  the  muzzle 
of  my  gun,  hawks  from  a  branch,  and  held  out  a 
pitcher  of  water  for  other  birds  to  alight  on  and  drink. 

"  Quadrupeds  and  birds  which  have  seldom  been 
disturbed  by  man,  dread  him  no  more  than  do  our 
English  birds,  the  cows,  or  horses,  grazing  in  the 
fields."1 

Dr.  Kidder,  in  his  description  of  the  "  sheath-bill " 
(Chionis  minor),  on  Kerguelen  Island,  says,  "  When  I 
sat  down  upon  a  rock  and  kept  perfectly  still  for  a 
few  moments,  they  crowded  around  me  like  a  mob  of 
street  boys  around  an  organ-grinder,"  and  "  all  seemed 
perfectly  fearless  and  trustful." 2 

That  the  descendants  of  such  animals,  inheriting 
the  accumulated  experience  of  their  ancestors,  become 
wild,  is  shown  in  the  instinctive  dread  of  man  exhib- 
ited by  the  young  of  the  same  and  allied  species  that 
are  frequently  brought  into  contact  with  him.  G. 

1  Darwin's  "Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p. 
33 ;  Carpenter's  "  Mental  Physiology,"  p.  90. 

8  The  Popular  Science  Monthly,  April,  1876,  p.  661. 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL  CHARACTERS.  4.7 

Leroy  observes  that  "  in  districts  where  a  sharp  war  is 
waged  against  the  fox,  the  cubs,  on  first  coming  out 
of  their  earths,  and  before  they  can  have  acquired  any 
experience,  are  more  cautious,  crafty,  and  suspicious, 
than  are  the  old  foxes  in  places  where  no  attempt  is 
made  to  trap  them." 

"  Knight,  who  for  sixty  years  devoted  himself  to 
systematic  observation  of  this  class  of  facts,  says  that 
during  that  time  the  habits  of  the  English  woodcock 
underwent  great  changes,  and  that  its  fear  of  man  was 
considerably  increased  by  its  transmission  through  sev- 
eral generations. 

"  The  same  author  discovered  similar  changes  of 
habit,  even  in  bees."  * 

The  marked  heredity  of  habits  has  led  some  mod- 
ern writers  to  claim  that  the  instincts  of  animals  are 
but  the  experiences  of  past  generations,  that  are  ac- 
cumulated and  established  through  inheritance.  Many 
of  the  most  valuable  characteristics  of  the  various  im- 
proved breeds  of  animals  have  been  produced  by  the 
inheritance  of  habits  of  the  system,  arising  from  the 
conditions  and  treatment  to  which  they  have  been 
subjected. 

The  remarkable  records  recently  made  by  the 
American  trotting-horse  are  the  result  of  training  and 
inheritance.8 

The  dairy  breeds  of  cattle  inherit  a  marked  func- 

1  Ribot  on  "  Heredity,"  p.  17. 

2  The  first  trotting-match  in  America  was  made  in  1818,  for  a  stake 
of  $1,000,  against  time.    It  was  won  by  a  horse  called  Boston  Blue,  in 
the  then  unprecedented  time  of  three  minutes  ("  The  Horse  in  Amer- 
ica," by  Herbert,  vol.  ii.,  p.  133). 


48  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

tional  activity  of  the  lacteal  glands,  which  is  but  a 
modified  habit  of  the  system. 

Pritchard,  in  his  "  Natural  History  of  Man,"  states 
that  the  peculiar  ambling  pace  to  which  the  horses 
bred  on  the  table-lands  of  the  Cordilleras  are  trained, 
has,  by  inheritance,  resulted  in  a  "  race  in  which  the 
ambling  pace  is  natural  and  requires  no  teaching." 

The  Norwegian  ponies,  descended  from  animals 
that  "  have  been  in  the  habit  of  obeying  the  voice  of 
their  riders  and  not  the  bridle,"  are  said  to  inherit  the 
same  peculiarity,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  break  them 
to  drive  in  the  ordinary  way.1 

The  habit  of  migration  at  particular  seasons  of  the 
year  is  inherited,  and  I  have  often  observed  it  in  mal- 
lard ducks  bred  for  several  generations  in  a  state  of 
domestication. 

It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  acquired  habits 
are  not  in  all  cases  hereditary,  but  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult, perhaps,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge 
of  the  subject,  to  fix  a  limit  to  their  inheritance,  so 
far,  at  least,  as  a  predisposition  is  concerned. 

Acquired  habits  and  the  original  traits  of  animals 
appear  to  be  conflicting  elements  in  their  constitution, 
either  one  of  which  may,  from  its  intensity,  predomi- 
nate in  hereditary  transmission. 

Pigs  have  been  taught  to  point  game  and  to  per- 
form various  tricks,  but,  in  the  hereditary  transmission 
of  their  characters,  "  Nature  "  has  had  a  stronger  in- 
fluence than  "  culture." 

1  The  last  two  statements  are  quoted  from  Goodale's  "  Principles  of 
Breeding,"  p.  25.    See  also  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology," 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL  CHARACTERS.  4.9 

Carpenter,  in  discussing  the  heredity  of  acquired 
habits,  says,  "  There  seems  to  be  reason  to  believe  that 
such  hereditary  transmission  is  limited  to  acquired 
peculiarities  which  are  simply  modifications  of  the 
natural  constitution  of  the  race,  and  would  not  extend 
to  such  as  may  be  altogether  foreign  to  it."  * 

From  a  practical  point  of  view,  however,  the  in- 
heritance of  acquired  characters,  so  far  as  they  are  of 
any  value,  is,  fortunately,  without  any  apparent  limit. 

Abnormal  characters  are  frequently  hereditary, 
but  they  are  not  so  likely  to  be  transmitted  as  acquired 
habits  that  are  in  harmony  with  the  original  peculiari- 
ties of  the  animal. 

The  following  examples  will  sufficiently  illustrate 
this  form  of  inheritance  : 

Gratio  Kelleia,  the  Maltese,  "  was  born  with  six 
fingers  upon  each  hand,  and  a  like  number  of  toes  to 
each  of  his  feet."  He  "  married  when  he  was  twenty- 
two  years  of  age,  and,  as  I  suppose  there  were  no  six- 
fingered  ladies  in  Malta,. he  married  an  ordinary  five- 
fingered  person. 

"  The  result  of  that  marriage  was  four  children :  the 
first,  Salvator,  had  six  fingers  and  toes,  like  his  father ; 
the  second  was  George,  who  had  five  fingers  and  five 
toes,  but  one  of  them  was  deformed,  showing  a  ten- 
dency to  variation ;  the  third  was  Andre — he  had  five 
fingers  and  five  toes,  quite  perfect ;  the  fourth  was  a 
girl,  Marie — she  had  five  fingers  and  five  toes,  but  her 
thumbs  were  deformed,  showing  a  tendency  toward 
the  sixth.  These  children  grew  up,  and,  when  they 
came  to  adult  years,  they  all  married,  and  of  course  it 

1  "  Mental  Physiology,"  p.  104. 


50  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

happened  that  they  all  married  five-fingered  and  five- 
toed  persons.  Now  let  us  see  what  were  the  results. 
Salvator  had  four  children — they  were  two  boys,  a 
girl,  and  another  boy — the  first  two  boys  and  the  girl 
were  six-fingered  and  six-toed  like  their  grandfather ; 
the  fourth  boy  had  only  five  fingers  and  toes. 

"  George  had  only  four  children ;  there  were  two 
girls  with  six  fingers  and  six  toes ;  there  was  one  girl 
with  six  fingers  and  five  toes  on  the  right  side,  and 
five  fingers  and  five  toes  on  the  left  side,  so  that  she 
was  half-and-half.  The  last,  a  boy,  had  five  fingers 
and  five  toes.  The  third,  Andre,  you  will  recollect, 
was  perfectly  well  formed,,  and  he  had  many  children 
whose  hands  and  feet  were  all  regularly  developed. 

"  Marie,  the  last,  who  of  course  married  a  man 
who  had  only  five  fingers,  had  four  children :  the  first, 
a  boy,  was  born  with  six  toes,  but  the  other  three  were 
normal."  l 

"  In  a  paper  contributed  to  the  Edinburgh  New 
Philosophical  Journal,  for  July,  1863,  Dr.  Strathers 
gives  several  cases  of  hereditary  digital  variations. 
Esther  P ,  who  had  six  fingers  on  one  hand,  be- 
queathed this  malformation  along  some  lines  of  her 
descendants,  for  two,  three,  and  four  generations. 

A S inherited  an  extra  digit  on  each  hand 

and  each  foot,  from  his  father ;  and  C G—  — , 

who  also  had  six  fingers  and  six  toes,  had  an  aunt  and 
a  grandmother  similarly  formed." a 

A  deficiency  in  the  number  of  fingers,  or  in  the 
number  of  the  phalanges  or  joints  of  the  fingers  and 

1  Huxley  on  "  The  Origin  of  Species,"  p.  92. 

8  Herbert  Spencer's  "  Principles  of  Biology,"  vol.  i.,  p.  243. 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL  CHARACTERS.  51 

toes,  may  likewise  be  transmitted,  as  shown  in  the 
following  cases  from  Mr.  Sedgwick's  paper  on  the 
"  Influence  of  Sex  in  Hereditary  Disease : " 

A  pastry-cook  at  Douai,  named  Augustin  Duforet, 
had  but  two  phalanges  to  all  his  fingers  and  toes. 
This  defect  he  inherited  from  his  grandfather,  who 
had  three  children  with  the  same  malformation ;  the 
eldest  of  them  (a  son)  had  three  sons  all  with  the  same 
defect ;  the  second  (a  daughter)  has  had  five  children, 
two  daughters  with  three  phalanges,  and  three  sons 
who  have  only  two ;  the  third,  who  is  the  father  of 
Augustin,  had  eleven  children,  five  daughters  normal- 
ly formed,  and  six  sons,  in  all  of  whom  there  is  a  pha- 
lanx wanting  in  both  fingers  and  toes. 

The  mother  of  Augustin  also  had  two  male,  still- 
born children,  with  the  same  deformity. 

Dr.  Lepine  reports  the  case  of  a  man  who  had 
only  three  fingers  on  each  hand,  and  four  toes  on  each 
foot ;  his  grandfather  and  son  had  likewise  the  same 
deformity. 

B6chet  records  the  case  of  a  woman  (Yictorie 
Barre)  "  who,  instead  of ,  hands,  had  on  each  arm  one 
finger  only,  the  other  fingers  and  their  metacarpal 
bones,  with  the  exception  of  imperfect  rudiments  of 
two  of  the  latter,  being  entirely  wanting ;  while  on 
each  foot  there  were  but  two  toes,  apparently  the  first 
and  fifth,  but  both  very  defective.  She  was  twice 
married  :  by  her  first  marriage  she  had  a  healthy  and 
regularly-formed  male  child,  and  by  her  second  mar- 
riage two  daughters  malformed  like  herself  ;  and  her 
sister  and  father  were  also  deformed  in  a  similar  man- 


52  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Another  case  is  on  record  of  the  "  hereditary  ab- 
sence of  the  two  distal  phalanges,"  in  which  "  the 
transmission  of  the  defect  for  ten  generations  had 
been  effected  by  the  females  only  of  the  family." 1 

A  supernumerary  organ,  when  inherited,  may  oc- 
cupy a  different  position  from  that  observed  in  the 
parent,  as  in  the  case  of  a  woman  with  three  nipples, 
published  by  Adrien  de  Jussieu.  "  The  additional  nip- 
ple was  placed  in  the  groin,  and  served  ordinarily  for 
suckling,  while  in  the  mother  of  this  woman,  who  was 
born  also  with  three  nipples,  they  were  all  placed  on 
the  anterior  region  of  the  thorax." a 

The  fifth  toe  of  Dorking  fowls,  which  is  one  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  breed,  has  been  inherited,  it 
is  claimed,  from  a  five-toed  variety  introduced  into 
Britain  by  the  Romans.  Whether  this  is  true  or  not, 
it  is  now  impossible  to  determine,  but  the  constancy 
of  this  peculiarity,  even  in  the  produce  of  other  breeds 
crossed  with  the  Dorking,  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
it  is  a  character  which  has  been  fixed  by  long-con- 
tinued inheritance.3 

In  the  Houdan  fowls,  when  first  introduced  into 
England  from  France,  a  fifth  toe  was  rarely  seen ;  but 
at  the  present  time  it  is  nearly  as  constant  in  this 
breed  as  in  the  Dorkings.4 

Mr.  "Wright  says  :  "  The  abnormal  structure  of  the 
Dorking  foot  is  very  apt  to  run  into  still  more  abnor- 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico-  Chirurgical  Review,  April,  1863,  p.  460. 
9  Ibid.,  July,  1863,  p.  172. 

8  Wright  on  "Poultry,"  pp.  311,  312;   Darwin's  "Animals  and 
Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  24. 
4  Wright  on  "  Poultry,"  p.  412, 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL  CHARACTERS.  53 

mal  forms,  which  disqualify  otherwise  fine  birds  for 
the  show-pen.  Birds  are  not  unfrequently  produced 
which  possess  three  back-toes,  or  have  an  extra  toe 
high  up  on  the  leg ;  or,  in  the  case  of  the  cock,  with 
supernumerary  spurs,  which  have  been  known  to  grow 
in  every  possible  direction."  * 

This  tendency  to  an  increase  in  the  development 
of  an  abnormal  character  that  has  become  hereditary 
has  been  observed  in  other  cases,  but  we  are  as  yet 
unable  to  present  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  them. 
In  the  case  of  the  Dorking,  the  practice  of  breeding 
only  those  birds  that  have  the  abnormal  peculiarity 
might  be  expected  to  intensify  the  tendency  to  its 
production,  by  making  it  a  dominant  character ;  but, 
in  the  following  case  given  by  Dr.  Struthers,  it  will 
be  safe  to  presume  that  only  one  parent  had  the  ab- 
normal character,  and  yet  we  find  the  same  tendency 
to  its  increase.  "  In  the  first  generation  an  additional 
digit  appeared  on  one  hand,  in  the  second  on  both 
hands,  in  the  third  three  brothers  had  both  hands,  and 
one  of  the  brothers  a  foot,  affected ;  and  in  the  fourth 
generation  all  four  limbs  were  affected." 2 

"  In  a  family,"  says  Sir  H.  Holland,  "  where  the 
father  had  a  singular  elongation  of  the  upper  eyelid, 
seven  or  eight  children  were  born  with  the  same  de- 
formity, two  or  three  other  children  having  it  not." 3 

Dr.  Osborne  reports  the  case  of  "  John  Murphy, 

1  Wright  on  "Poultry,"  p.  331. 

8  Quoted  in  Darwin's  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication," 
vol.  ii.,  p.  23. 

8  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  1814,  p.  91 ;  quoted  in  Darwin's 
"  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  17. 


54:  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

aged  fifty-two  years,  a  native  of  County  Wexford 
(Ireland),  who  had  fifteen  brothers  and  five  sisters,  all 
of  whom  possessed  the  family  peculiarity  of  tortoise- 
shell-colored  eyes.  The  inheritance  was  derived  from 
the  mother,  whose  maiden  name  was  Murray.  She 
had  three  sisters  and  one  brother,  who  were  all  simi- 
larly affected,  and  who  inherited  the  peculiarity  from 

their  mother,  whose  maiden  name  was  F .  It  is 

to  this  latter  family  that  the  peculiarity  belongs,  inso- 
much that  in  the  part  of  the  country  where  they  re- 
sided they  have  been  commonly  recognized  by  this 
distinction,  and  celebrated  for  communicating  it  to 
their  posterity."  In  this  case,  for  three  generations 
"the  transmission  of  the  defect  has  been  restricted 
exclusively  to  the  female  sex."  * 

"  In  the  year  1770,  as  we  learn  from  D'Azara,  a 
hornless  bull  was  produced  in  Paraguay,  which  has 
been  the  progenitor  of  a  race  of  hornless  cattle  that 
has  since  multiplied  extensively  in  that  country." a 

The  polled  breeds  of  Great  Britain  undoubtedly 
had  a  similar  origin. 

According  to  Dr.  Randall,  "  a  ram  having  ears  of 
not  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  usual  size  appeared  in 
a  flock  of  Saxon  sheep  in  Germany.  He  was  a  supe- 
rior animal,  and  got  valuable  stock.  These  were  in- 
terbred, and  a '  little-eared '  sub-family  created.  Some 
of  these  found  their  way  into  the  United  States,  be- 
tween 1824  and  1828.  One  of  the  rams  came  into 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  April,  1861,  r>. 
248.  The  case  was  originally  published  in  the  Dublin  Medical  Journal 
for  1835. 

8  "Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  1311. 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL   CHARACTERS.  55 

Onondaga  County,  New  York.  He  was  a  choice  ani- 
mal, and  his  owner,  David  Ely,  valued  his  small  ears 
as  a  distinctive  mark  of  his  blood. 

"  He  bred  a  flock  by  him,  and  gradually  almost 
bred  off  their  ears  entirely. 

"  His  flock  enjoyed  great  celebrity  and  popularity 
in  its  day,  but  has  long  been  broken  up,  and  many 
years  have  doubtless  elapsed  since  any  of  the  sur- 
rounding sheep-owners  have  used  a  c  little-eared '  ram ; 
yet  nearly  every  flock  that  retains  a  drop  of  that  blood 
— even  coarse-mutton  sheep  bred  away  from  it,  prob- 
ably for  ten  or  fifteen  generations,  insomuch  that  all 
Saxon  characteristics  have  totally  disappeared — still 
continues  to  throw  out  an  occasional  lamb  as  distinctly 
marked  with  the  precise  peculiarity  under  considera- 
tion as  Mr.  Ely's  original  stock."  1 

The  "Ancon"  or  "Otter"  breed  of  sheep,  that 
originated  in  Massachusetts  in  1791,  were  character- 
ized by  the  length  of  their  bodies  and  the  "  extreme 
shortness  of  the  legs,  which  also  turned  out  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  render  them  rickety.  They  cannot  run 
or  jump,  and  even  walk  with  difficulty." a 

This  deformed  breed  is  said  to  be  descended  from 

1  "Practical  Shepherd,"  p.  104. 

2  These  sheep  were  described  by  Colonel  Humphreys,  in  the  "  Philo- 
sophical Transactions,"  London,  1813,  p.   88,  according  to  Darwin 
("Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p.  126), who  states 
that  this  breed  had  their  origin  on  the  farm  of  Seth  Wright,  in  Massa- 
chusetts. 

Chancellor  Livingston,  in  his  "Essay  on  Sheep,"  1813,  p.  37,  from 
which  the  description  above  is  quoted,  says,  "  The  Otter  sheep,  it  is 
said,  were  first  discovered  on  some  island  on  our  Eastern  coast,  where, 
I  cannot  precisely  say,  and  from  thence  they  have  spread  to  the  adjoin- 
ing States." 


56  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

a  ram  in  which  the  malformation  was  congenital.  It 
is  stated,  on  the  authority  of  Colonel  Humphreys,  that 
this  defect  became  so  fixed  by  inheritance  that  it  was 
uniformly  transmitted. 

The  Niata  cattle,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the 
Plata,  described  by  Darwin,  have  a  peculiar  malfor- 
mation of  the  skull,  that  undoubtedly  has  been  devel- 
oped by  the  inheritance  of  a  deformity  of  some  of  the 
ancestors. 

In  this  breed  "the  forehead  is  very  short  and 
broad,  with  the  nasal  end  of  the  skull,  together  with 
the  whole  plane  of  the  upper  molar  teeth,  curved  up- 
ward. The  lower  jaw  projects  beyond  the  upper,  and 
has  a  corresponding  upward  curvature."  l 

A  very  singular  abnormal  peculiarity  is  hereditary 
in  some  families  of  pigs — the  tail,  which  is  perfectly 
formed  at  birth,  having  a  tendency  to  waste  away  and 
drop  off  when  the  animals  are  a  few  weeks  old.3 

Cases  are  reported  of  families  with  a  single  lock 
of  hair  of  a  different  color  from  the  rest  of  the  hair, 
which  in  one  generation  may  be  upon  the  right  side, 
and  in  the  next  on  the  left.8 

A  family  of  my  acquaintance  have  several  abnor- 
mal peculiarities  that  are  transmitted  with  great  uni- 
formity. The  little  toes  lap  over  the  adjoining  toes, 
and  the  nails  have  a  longitudinal  groove  that  gives 
them  a  bifid  termination,  so  that  when  the  nail  is 
trimmed  the  part  cut  off  is  in  two  pieces.  This  same 
character  of  the  nail  is  seen  also  on  the  index-fingers. 

1  "Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p.  113. 

2  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  41. 
8  "Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  14. 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL  CHARACTERS.  57 

In  addition  to  these  peculiarities,  a  cartilaginous  pro- 
jection on  the  back  of  the  ear  is  inherited.  The  pa- 
ternity of  an  illegitimate  child,  in  one  instance,  was 
traced  to  this  family,  from  its  inheritance  of  the  pecu- 
liarities above-mentioned. 

Dr.  Anderson  says  a  gentleman  of  his  acquaintance 
"  chanced  to  find  a  rabbit  among  his  breed  that  had 
only  one  ear ;  he  watched  the  progeny  of  that  creature, 
and  among  these  he  found  one  of  the  opposite  sex  that 
had  only  one  ear  also ;  he  paired  these  two  one-eared 
rabbits  together,  and  has  now  a  breed  of  rabbits  with 
one  ear  only,  which  propagate  as  fast,  and  as  steadily 
produce  their  like,  as  the  two-eared  rabbits  from  which 
they  originally  were  descended."  1 

The  same  author  gives  the  case  of  a  bitch  that  was 
born  with  only  three  legs.  "  She  has  had  several  lit- 
ters of  puppies,  and  among  these  several  individuals 
were  produced  that  had  the  same  defect  with  herself." 2 

He  also  states  that  "  a  cat  belonging  to  Dr.  Coven- 
try, of  Edinburgh,  which  had  no  blemish  at  its  birth, 
lost  its  tail  by  accident  when  it  was  young. 

"  It  has  had  many  litters  of  kittens,  and  in  every 
one  of  these  there  was  one  or  more  of  the  litter  that 
wanted  the  tail,  either  in  whole  or  in  part." 3 

"  Blumenbach  affirms  that  '  a  man  whose  little- 
finger  of  the  right  hand  had  been  nearly  demolished 
and  set  awry  had  several  sons,  all  of  whom  had  the 
little  fingers  of  the  right  hand  crooked.'  "  * 

1  "  Recreations  in  Agriculture,"  vol.  i.,  p.  68. 

2  Loc.  tit.,  p.  68.  3  Ibid.,  p.  69. 

4  As  quoted  in  the  British  and  Foreign  Medico-  Chirurgical  Review^ 
April,  1863,  p.  462. 


58  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

In  his  experiments  with  Guinea-pigs,  Dr.  Brown- 
Sequard  observed  that,  in  those  subjected  to  a  particu- 
lar operation,  involving  a  portion  of  the  spinal  cord 
or  sciatic  nerve,  "  a  slight  pinching  of  the  skin  of  the 
face  would  throw  the  animals  into  a  kind  of  epileptic 
convulsion.  When  these  epileptic  Guinea-pigs  bred 
together,  their  offspring  showed  the  same  predisposi- 
tion, without  having  been  themselves  subjected  to  any 
lesion  whatever ;  while  no  such  tendency  showed  itself 
in  any  of  the  large  number  of  young  which  were  bred 
from  parents  that  had  not  been  operated  on." J 

Prof.  Tanner  says  he  knew  "  a  very  striking  in- 
stance of  the  loss  of  milk  in  a  flock  (previously  cele- 
brated for  their  supply  of  milk)  being  traced  entirely 
to  the  use  of  a  very  well-formed  ram,  bred  from  a  ewe 
singularly  deficient  in  milk." a 

It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  animals  that 
have  been  "branded"  in  the  same  place  for  several 
successive  generations,  transmit  the  same  mark  to  their 
offspring." ' 

From  the  many  cases  of  inherited  habits  and  ab- 
normal peculiarities  on  record,  we  have  quoted  a  suffi- 
cient number  to  show  the  great  variety  of  such  charac- 
ters that  are  liable  to  be  transmitted. 

In  a  large  proportion  of  cases  it  must  be  admitted 
that  the  abnormal  peculiarities  of  parents  are  not  ob- 
served in  the  offspring,  and  it  has  been  claimed  from 

1  Carpenter's  "  Mental  Physiology,"  p.  371 ;  Darwin's  "Animals  and 
Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  36 ;  Herbert  Spencer's  "  Biol- 
ogy," vol.  i.,  p.  251. 

8  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xxii.,  p.  5. 

8  "  Encyclopedic  Pratique  de  1'Agriculteur,"  tome  viii.,  p.  678; 
Goodale's  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  p.  25. 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL  CHARACTERS.  59 

this  fact  that  they  have  not  been  transmitted.  From 
the  cases  presented  in  the  following  chapter,  however, 
it  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  non-inheritance  of  a 
character  can  only  be  determined  by  an  exhaustive  ex- 
amination of  the  individuals  in  the  collateral  branches 
of  the  family,  as  well  as  those  in  the  direct  line  of  de- 
scent. If  a  character  does  not  make  its  appearance  in 
a  particular  instance,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that 
it  has  not  been  inherited,  as  it  may  be  obscured  or 
made  latent  by  the  presence  of  some  other  character 
that  for  the  time  is  dominant  in  the  organization. 

The  heredity  of  acquired  habits  and  abnormal  pe- 
culiarities should  not  be  considered  as  exceptional,  but 
rather  the  result  of  some  general  law  of  the  organiza- 
tion that  is  constant  in  its  action,  and  the  supposed 
cases  of  non-inheritance  of  a  character  will  in  all  prob- 
ability be  found  to  be  in  accordance  with  it. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  transmission  of  func- 
tional peculiarities  of  an  organ  involved  the  transmis- 
sion of  some  corresponding  structural  change  of  the 
organization,  that  gave  rise  to  the  abnormal  modifica- 
tion of  its  function. 

There  are  cases,  however,  in  which  a  well-marked 
functional  derangement  of  certain  organs,  originally 
produced  by  an  injury  to  the  nervous  system,  has  be- 
come hereditary,  without  the  transmission  of  any  ap- 
parent malformation  of  the  nerves  themselves.  Dr. 
Eugene  Dupuy  has  given  some  interesting  illustrations 
of  this  singular  form  of  heredity,  some  of  which  he 
observed  as  the  assistant  of  Dr.  Brown-Sequard,  in  his 
experiments  on  Guinea-pigs,  already  noticed,  while 
others  are  the  result  of  his  own  investigations. 


60  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

"  If  in  a  Guinea-pig,  for  instance,"  says  Dr.  Dupuy, 
"that  portion  of  the  vaso-motor  branch  (of  nerves) 
which  is  in  connection  with  the  carotid  artery  in  the 
neck — which,  therefore,  regulates  the  blood-supply  of 
some  part  of  the  brain,  of  the  ear,  of  the  face,  and  of 
the  eye — be  divided,  or,  better  still,  if  the  ganglion 
from  which  that  branch  springs  be  removed,  we  see 
that  the  entire  half  of  the  head  of  the  animal,  on  the 
side  on  which  the  operation  has  been  performed,  be- 
comes hotter,  and,  on  examining  more  closely,  we  dis- 
cover that  the  increase  of  heat  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  blood-vessels  allow  more  blood  to  pass  through 
them,  that  the  nutrition  of  the  parts  is  increased,  and 
therefore  the  heat  also  increases ;  and  we  see  that  the 
upper  eyelid  of  the  animal  drops  a  little,  being  in  a 
state  of  hypersemia — that  is,  its  capillaries  are  dis- 
tended— that  the  secretion  of  tears  is  increased,  so 
that  the  eye  is  wet,  that  the  pupil  of  the  eye  is  con- 
tracted, because  of  more  blood  in  the  ciliary  system, 
etc. 

"  The  ear  also  becomes  hotter,  and,  if  the  animal  is 
white,  we  can  see  that  the  ear  which  before  was  white, 
with  some  blood-vessels  stretching  across,  is  now  be- 
come red,  and  presents  a  rich  network  of  capillaries, 
which  have  become  apparent,  being  of  enlarged  calibre. 
Now,  all  these  phenomena  may  disappear  after  a  while, 
except  a  few.  The  eye  always  remains  smaller,  al- 
though the  blood-supply  of  the  eyelid  is  more  regu- 
lated ;  the  pupil  remains  a  little  contracted  and  the 
secretion  of  tears  continues,  and  also  the  nictitant 
membrane  remains  in  a  congested  state.  No  matter 
how  long  the  animal  lives,  that  state  of  the  eye  per- 


ACQUIRED  AND   ABNORMAL   CHARACTERS.  61 

sists,  and,  when  the  animal  dies,  or  is  sacrificed,  it  is 
seen  that  this  eyeball  is  smaller  than  its  fellow. 

"  If,  now,  such  an  animal  were  allowed  to  breed 
with  another,  whether  operated  upon  in  the  same 
manner  or  not,  it  would  be  seen  that  young  which  are 
born  apparently  perfectly  healthy  present,  a  few  days 
after  birth,  all  the  phenomena  observed  in  their 
changed  parent  or  parents.  They  have  the  same 
smaller  eyes,  but  on  both  sides,  the  same  ear  thick- 
ened and  enlarged,  etc. 

"  The  only  phenomena  which  they  do  not  show  are 
those  which  have  been  transient — the  increased  heat 
and  the  increased  sensation  which  depended  upon  the 
increased  amount  of  blood  present,  etc.  Those  young 
can  be  made  to  breed  in-and-in  for  several  genera- 
tions. I  have  watched  them  for  five  generations,  and 
always  the  same  characteristics  will  be  discovered  in 
the  young." 

"  If,  now,  an  examination  is  made  of  the  parent, 
the  first  one,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  nerve  that  had 
been  sectioned,  or  its  ganglion  which  had  been  extir- 
pated, is  not  regenerated ;  while,  if  an  autopsy  is  made 
of  one  of  the  offspring  of  any  of  the  subsequent  gen- 
erations, it  is  seen  that  they  all  possess  the  nerve  and 
the  ganglion  intact.  The  acutest  or  most  minute  mi- 
croscopic examinations  do  not  discover  any  difference 
between  their  structure  and  those  of  other  animals  of 
the  same  family  and  species."  * 

In  these  cases  the  permanent  modifications  of  the 
eye  and  face,  resulting  from  the  injury  to  the  nervous 
system,  are  entailed  upon  the  offspring,  while  the 

1  Popular  Science  Monthly,  July,  1877,  pp.  333,  334. 


62  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

nerves  that  have  been  mutilated  are  transmitted  in 
their  original  integrity. 

The  following  cases,  given  by  Dr.  Dupuy,  are  of 
particular  interest  from  the  series  of  changes  repeated 
in  the  offspring  that  have  not  apparently  inherited  the 
original  lesion  of  the  nervous  system  that  produced 
them: 

"  If  a  puncture  be  made  into  that  portion  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord  which  anatomists  call 
the  restiform  body,  in  Guinea-pigs,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  animal  presents  at  once  an  increased  vascularity 
of  the  ear  on  the  corresponding  side ;  the  ear  becomes 
gorged  with  blood,  chiefly  toward  the  periphery; 
sometimes,  in  a  very  short  time,  indeed,  that  portion 
of  the  ear  falls  off,  destroyed  by  dry  gangrene. 

"  I  have  the  record  of  a  case  in  which  the  ear  was 
thus  partially  destroyed  in  less  than  nine  hours.  The 
eye  on  the  same  side  becomes  larger  and  protrudes ; 
it  protrudes  first,  and  becomes  larger  in  the  course  of 
time.  If  a  pair  of  Guinea-pigs  thus  operated  upon  be 
allowed  to  breed,  and  even  if  only  one  parent  is  thus 
diseased,  the  other  being  healthy,  when  young  are 
born  these  young  always  present  the  phenomena  ob- 
served in  the  parents;  but  the  phenomena  just  de- 
scribed only  come  shortly  after  their  birth. 

"  It  is  seen  that  their  eyeballs  increase  in  size  and 
protrude  from  their  sockets;  their  ears  after  a  few 
days  become  diseased,  just  like  those  of  the  parents, 
the  subjects  of  experimentation,  and  drop  off,  eaten 
by  dry  gangrene. 

"When  the  parent  or  parents  are  sacrificed,  and 
their  restiform  bodies  are  examined  microscopically, 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL   CHARACTERS.  63 

nothing  is  detected  but  a  cicatrix  in  the  envelopes  of 
the  spinal  cord,  which  appears  a  little  thickened  at 
that  point ;  but  the  nervous  tissue  itself  does  not  dif- 
fer apparently  from  surrounding  elements  of  the  same 
nature  and  structure. 

"  If  an  examination  is  also  made  of  one  of  the 
young,  nothing  at  all  is  discovered. 

"  These  young  can  be  allowed  to  breed  in-and-in, 
and  always  the  same  phenomena  will  be  observed  in 
each  subsequent  generation. 

"  I  have  sometimes  noticed  that  if  a  male  or  a  fe- 
male belonging  to  any  one  of  the  successive  genera- 
tions is  allowed  to  breed  with  another  healthy  animal, 
very  generally  some  of  the  young  present  the  same 
hereditary  peculiarities.  I  have  followed  animals  thus 
operated  upon  through  seven  generations."  1 

In  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Brown-Sequard  with 
Guinea-pigs,  it  was  found  that  an  injury  of  the  spinal 
cord,  or  of  the  sciatic  nerve,  produced  a  change  in 
sensation  over  a  certain  well-defined  area  of  the  face, 
in  addition  to  the  epileptic  affection  already  referred 
to.  When  the  sciatic  nerve  was  the  seat  of  the  injury 
the  outer  part  of  the  foot  was  likewise  destroyed, 
leaving  but  one  toe,  the  inner,  on  the  foot  of  the  in- 
jured side,  and  this  deformity  is  a  permanent  one. 

When  the  animals  recover  from  the  epileptic  affec- 
tion, as  they  do  after  several  months,  "  all  the  phe- 
nomena observed  about  the  zone  of  skin  in  the  neck 
and  face  recur  in  the  reverse  order ;  that  is  to  say,  all 
the  different  sensations  return  by  degrees,  at  the  same 
time  that  the  hair  of  the  region  falls,  and  new  hair 

1  Popular  Science  Monthly,  July,  1877,  pp.  334,  335. 


04:  PRINCIPLES  OP  STOCK-BREEDING. 

grows  gradually.  The  fits  become  simple  convulsions, 
then  mere  twitchings,  and  lastly  the  animal  can  no 
longer  be  distinguished  from  another  healthy  one,  but 
by  the  fact  that  it  has  only  one  toe  at  one  of  its  hind- 
legs,  when  the  operation  has  been  performed  on  the 
sciatic  nerve;  and  nothing  whatever  remains  when 
the  origin  of  the  disease  was  a  prick  in  the  spinal 
cord." 1 

The  young  of  these  epileptic  Guinea-pigs  are  born 
apparently  healthy,  with  the  exception  of  those  from 
parents  that  had  been  subjected  to  the  injury  of  the 
sciatic  nerve,  and  they  have  but  one  toe  on  one  of  the 
hind-feet.  When  these  apparently  healthy  animals 
are  two  or  more  months  old  they  gradually  become 
affected  with  epilepsy,  and  the  same  area  on  the  face 
and  neck  passes  through  the  same  series  of  changes  in 
the  development  and  cure  of  the  affection  that  had 
been  observed  in  their  parents.  "  We  see  the  gradual 
increase  of  the  affection,  the  diminution  of  the  sensi- 
bility in  the  zone,  just  as  with  the  parents,  the  coming 
of  a  period  of  complete  attacks  of  epilepsy,  and  then 
the  loss  of  hair  and  the  gradual  diminution  of  the 
nervous  complaint." 2 

In  the  original  parents,  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
derangement  of  the  nervous  system,  resulting  in  con- 
vulsions, was  produced  by  an  injury  to  the  spinal  cord 
or  the  sciatic  nerve,  and,  when  these  injuries  had 
healed,  the  nervous  symptoms  gradually  disappeared, 
the  hair  is  shed  from  that  part  of  the  face  affected,  and 
gradually  replaced,  and  the  cure  is  complete. 

1  Popular  Science  Monthly,  July,  1877,  p.  337. 
9  Loc.  cit.,  p.  337. 


ACQUIRED  AND  ABNORMAL  CHARACTERS.  65 

Now,  the  young  of  these  animals  that  had  recov- 
ered from  their  injuries  are  born  with  a  nervous  sys- 
tem that  is  apparently  perfect ;  and  yet,  after  a  time, 
the  disease  is  developed,  passes  through  its  peculiar 
stages  without  apparent  cause,  and  finally  disappears. 

The  functional  derangement  of  the  organization  is 
apparently  transmitted  without  being  accompanied  by 
any  anatomical  lesions  that  can  be  assigned  as  an  ex- 
citing cause. 


CHAPTEK  V. 

ATAVISM. 

ANY  peculiarity  of  an  ancestor,  more  or  less  re- 
mote, whether  of  form,  color,  habits,  mental  traits,  or 
predisposition  to  disease,  may  make  its  appearance  in 
the  offspring  without  having  been  observed  in  the 
parents. 

This  form  of  heredity,  technically  termed  atavism 
(from  atavus,  an  ancestor),  is  called  reversion  by  Mr. 
Darwin,  and  it  has  for  a  long  time  been  recognized 
by  breeders,  under  a  variety  of  names,  as  "  throwing 
back,"  "  crying  back,"  "  breeding  back,"  etc. 

It  will,  perhaps,  be  better  to  retain  the  term  ata- 
vism, which  has  been  so  generally  in  use  to  indicate 
this  class  of  cases,  as  it  does  not  involve  in  its  signifi- 
cation any  theoretical  explanation  of  the  phenomena. 

Some  of  the  cases  cited  in  the  preceding  pages,  to 
illustrate  other  phases  of  the  great  law  of  heredity,  are 
likewise  examples  of  atavism,  and  we  shall  find  also 
in  the  cases  quoted  in  this  connection  many  illustra- 
tions of  topics  discussed  in  other  chapters.  Of  the 
multitude  of  cases  on  record  of  this  form  of  heredity, 
the  following  will  serve  to  illustrate  its  leading  feat- 
ures. Mr.  Darwin  states  that  the  following  case  was 
communicated  to  him  on  good  authority :  "  A  pointer- 


ATAVISM.  67 

bitch  produced  seven  puppies.  Four  were  marked 
with  blue  and  white,  which  is  so  unusual  a  color  with 
pointers  that  she  was  thought  to  have  played  false 
with  one  of  the  greyhounds,  and  the  whole  litter  was 
condemned ;  but  the  game-keeper  was  permitted  to 
save  one  as  a  curiosity. 

"  Two  years  afterward  a  friend  of  the  owner  saw 
the  young  dog,  and  declared  that  he  was  the  image  of 
his  old  pointer-bitch  Sappho,  the  only  blue-and-white 
pointer  of  pure  descent  which  he  had  ever  seen.  This 
led  to  close  inquiry,  and  it  was  proved  that  he  was  the 
great-great-grandson  of  Sappho ;  so  that,  according  to 
the  common  expression,  he  had  only  one-sixteenth  of 
her  blood  in  his  veins." ' 

Mr.  Tollett,  of  Betley  Hall,  crossed  his  fowls  with 
Malays,  and,  though  he  attempted  to  get  rid  of  this 
strain,  he  gave  it  up  in  despair,  the  Malay  characters 
reappearing  forty  years  after  the  cross  was  made.8 

Mr.  Hewett  states  that  the  Rumpless  fowls  in 
some  instances  produce  young  with  tail-feathers,  but 
that,  when  three  such  birds  were  selected  to  breed 
from,  there  was  but  one  chick  with  a  tail  out  of  over 
twenty  bred  from  the  trio.3 

Goodale  relates  an  interesting  case  that  occurred 
in  the  Kennebec  Yalley.  Many  years  ago  there  were 
a  few  polled  cattle  in  that  locality,  but  they  finally 
became  extinct.  For  thirty-five  years  after  the  last 
of  these  polled  cattle  was  killed  the  cattle  on  the  farm 
of  Mr.  Wingate  all  had  horns,  but,  at  the  end  of  that 

1  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  46. 
8  On  the  authority  of  Mr.  Darwin,  loc.  cit.,  p.  49. 
3  Tegetmeier's  "Poultry-Book,"  p.  231. 


68  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

time,  a  polled  animal  made  its  appearance  in  his  herd, 
with  all  the  characteristics  of  the  original  breed.1 

It  is  stated,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Sidney,  that 
in  a  litter  of  Essex  pigs  two  young  ones  appeared  with 
marks  of  the  Berkshire  that  had  been  used  as  a  cross 
twenty-eight  years  before.2 

The  occasional  appearance  of  horns  in  the  Gallo- 
way, Suffolk,  and  other  polled  breeds  that  have  been 
bred  pure  for  many  years,  furnishes  an  illustration  of 
the  transmission  of  an  original  character  by  atavic 
descent. 

Mr.  Sedgwick  says,  "  In  the  well-known  case  of 
George  III.,  the  insanity  was  transmitted  in  the  male 
line,  by  atavic  descent  from  a  male  ancestor,  eight 
generations  back,  in  whom  not  only  the  insanity,  but 
many  other  of  the  well-known  characteristics  of  the 
unfortunate  monarch,  were  exactly  repeated." 8 ' 

In  the  case  of  a  woman  with  a  sixth  finger  on  one 
hand,  related  by  Dr.  Struthers,  only  one  out  of  eigh- 
teen children  had  an  extra  finger,  and,  in  this  case, 
both  hands  were  affected.  One  of  the  sons,  James, 
had  two  sons  and  seven  daughters,  all,  like  himself, 
with  the  normal  number  of  fingers.  One  of  his 
daughters,  however,  had  a  son  with  six  fingers  on  each 
hand. 

Two  generations  were  thus  free  from  the  defect, 
but,  when  it  made  its  appearance  in  the  next  genera- 

1  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  p.  65. 

*  "Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  49 ;  from 
Youatt  on  "  The  Hog,"  1860,  p.  27. 

8  British  and  Foreign  Medico- CJdrurgical  Review,  April,  1863,  p. 
467.  See  also  "  The  Four  Georges,"  by  Thackeray,  pp.  5,  6,  1861. 


ATAVISM.  69 

tion,  the  intensity  of  transmission  was  increased  rather 
than  diminished,  as  both  hands  were  affected  instead 
of  one,  as  in  the  case  of  the  great-great-grandmother.1 

Dr.  Chadbourne  reports  a  case  that  came  under 
his  own  observation,  of  two  young  men  who  were 
cousins,  "  each  of  whom  had  six  toes  upon  his  feet." 

Neither  of  the  parents  had  the  defect,  but  it  was 
•a  characteristic  of  the  grandparents,  and  appeared  in 
the  family  a  long  time  before.2 

Mr.  Sedgwick,  in  his  article  on  the  "  Influence  of 
Sex  in  Hereditary  Disease,"  says,  "  Siebold  records 
the  case  of  a  married  couple  whose  fathers  were  both 
red-headed,  but  not  having  red  hair  themselves,  who 
had  four  sons  red-headed,  and  three  daughters  whose 
hair  was  of  another  color." ' 

In  the  Short-horn  herd-books  may  be  found  numer- 
ous instances  of  the  atavic  inheritance  of  color,  and 
almost  every  breeder  can  furnish  from  his  own  expe- 
rience many  cases  of  a  similar  character.  The  follow- 
ing is  cited  as  an  example  of  this  class  of  cases  :  "  Mr. 
"Wadsworth  owns  the  twin  Princess  cows,  Lady  Mary 
seventh  and  eighth ;  they  are  both  good  roans,  got  by 
fourth  Lord  of  Oxford  (5903  "  American  Herd-Book  "), 
a  roan  bull ;  their  dam,  Lady  Mary,  a  red,  got  by  Hot- 
spur (31393),  a  roan ;  their  granddam,  Baroness,  a  red 
roan,  got  by  Barrington  (30501),  a  white  ;  their  great- 
granddam,  the  imported  red  Princess  cow  Red  Rose 
second,  got  by  Napier  (6238),  red  roan.  These  twin 
heifers,  Lady  Mary  seventh  and  eighth,  were  both 

1  Spencer's  "Principles  of  Biology,"  vol.  i.,  p.  258. 

*  "Agricultural  Report  of  Massachusetts,"  1866-'6Y,  p.  88. 

8  British  and  Foreign  Medico-Chirurgical Review^  April,  1863,  p.  451. 


70  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

served  by  the  Princess  bull,  Earl  of  Seaham  (8077 
"American  Herd-Book"),  a  good  roan,  and  each 
dropped  a  bull-calf ;  but  the  one  from  Lady  Mary 
seventh  was  a  red,  while  the  other,  from  Lady  Mary 
eighth,  was  white." l 

The  late  Hon.  Charles  Rich,  of  Lapeer,  who,  when 
a  young  man,  had  charge  of  the  merino  sheep  that 
formed  the  foundation  of  what  is  known  as  the  "  Eich 
family  of  Merinoes,"  informed  me  that  tan-colored 
ears  was  a  common  characteristic  of  the  Spanish  me- 
rino sheep  at  that  time,  and  that  it  was  highly  prized 
as  an  indication  of  the  "  blood."  Dr.  Randall  says  : 
"  These  spots  were  highly  characteristic  of  several  of 
the  families  of  merinoes  originally  imported  from 
Spain,  and  the  lambs  of  some  of  them  were  occasion- 
ally covered  over  the  carcass  at  birth  with  larger  spots 
of  the  same  color,  or  of  a  deeper  tawny-red.  Some- 
times the  whole  body  was  thus  colored.  But  all  of 
these  tints  disappeared  on  the  body  when  the  wool 
grew  out,  and  were  seen  no  more." a 

These  tan-colored  spots  on  the  ears  and  face,  and 
also  on  the  body,  are  now  frequently  seen  in  flocks  in 
which  white  ears  have  been  the  prevailing  character- 
istic for  many  generations,  the  original  peculiarities  of 
the  breed  being  transmitted  by  atavism. 

The  "dark  noses,"  so  frequently  seen  in  short- 
horns, are  but  a  repetition  of  ancestral  characteristics 
by  atavic  descent. 

The  following  case  of  atavic  transmission  of  an 
abnormal  peculiarity  is  reported  by  Mr.  Sedgwick,  on 

1  "  The  Country  Gentleman,"  1876,  p.  105. 
8  "  The  Practical  Shepherd,"  p.  72,  note. 


ATAVISM.  71 

the  authority  of  Dr.  Cotton :  "  A  gentleman  had,  with 
both  dentitions,  a  double-tooth  in  place  of  the  left- 
second  incisor  in  the  upper  jaw ;  he  was  the  only  one 
in  the  family  of  nine  children  who  presented  this  pe- 
culiarity, which  he  inherited  from  his  paternal  grand- 
father, whom  he  so  exactly  resembled,  even  in  the 
form  of  the  hands  also,  as  often  to  have  arrested  the 
attention  of  their  acquaintance." 1 

The  same  authority  says :  "  Borelli,  quoted  by 
Rougemont,  records  the  case  of  a  well-made  man  who 
was  three  times  married,  and  whose  father  had  been 
lame ;  the  children  of  this  man  by  his  three  wives 
were  all  lame." a 

The  following  case  of  skin-disease  (ichthyosis),  re- 
ported by  Mr.  Sedgwick,  illustrates  a  singular  feature 
in  the  atavic  transmission  of  disease,  from  the  limit  of 
the  defect  to  the  male  sex,  while  its  transmission  ap- 
pears to  be  exclusively  limited  to  females :  "  It  first 
occurred  in  the  grandfather,  who  is  still  living,  and 
who  has  the  disease  in  a  very  severe  form  ;  it  did  not 
appear  in  him,  or  it  was  not,  at  least,  noticed,  till  he 
was  about  seven  or  eight  years  old. 

"  This  man  has  had  three  sons  and  three  daughters. 
One  son  died  at  the  age  of  five  years,  and  one  at  the 
age  of  seven  years,  both  of  whom  were  free  from  the 
disease.  The  other  son  is  living  and  past  middle  age, 
but  has  shown  no  tendency  to  the  disease.  The  three 
daughters  have  all  lived  to  grow  up  and  marry,  and 
in  them  likewise  the  skin  is  unaffected.  Two  only  of 
the  three  daughters  have  had  children.  The  eldest 
daughter  has  had  four,  of  whom  the  first-born,  a  girl, 

1  Loc.  tit.,  April,  1863,  p.  454.  8  Ibid.,  p.  464. 


72  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

lias  had  no  appearance  of  the  disease ;  the  three  other 
children  are  boys,  of  whom  the  eldest,  aged  fourteen 
years,  and  the  youngest,  aged  nine  years,  suffer  from 
the  disease,  while  the  other  son,  aged  eleven  years,  is 
free  from  it. 

"  The  family  of  the  other  daughter  consists  of 
three  children,  the  eldest  of  whom,  aged  six  years,  is, 
as  in  the  former  case,  a  girl,  and  free  from  the  disease, 
while  the  two  other  children,  who  are  boys,  aged  re- 
spectively three  years  and  one  year,  have  the  skin  very 
decidedly  affected.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  disease, 
in  these  grandchildren,  has  in  each  case  appeared 
within  a  few  months  after  birth."  * 

A  tendency  to  excessive  haemorrhage,  from  even 
slight  injuries,  is  well  known  to  be  hereditary,  and 
this  to  such  an  extent  that  "  in  some  families  scarcely 
a  single  male  arrives  at  maturity."  In  his  remarks  on 
the  heredity  of  this  diseased  condition  of  the  system, 
Mr.  Sedgwick  says :  "  In  some  of  these  cases  it  is  re- 
corded that,  while  the  males  alone  have  suffered  from 
the  disease,  the  females  alone  have  been  able  to  trans- 
mit it,  as  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Appleton,  whose  daugh- 
ters conveyed  the  complaint  to  his  grandsons,  and 
who,  in  their  turn,  transmitted  it  through  their  daugh- 
ters to  their  grandsons ;  the  males  in  this  family,  as  in 
many  others  similarly  affected,  never  inheriting  the 
disease  direct  from  their  fathers,  but  always  through 
females  from  their  grandfathers,  as  occurred  in  my 
case  of  ichthyosis." a 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  1861,  p.  246. 
8  Loc.  cit.,  July,  1861,  p.  146.     In  the  case  of  Mr.  Appleton,  above 
referred  to,  references  are  made  to  the  New  England  Journal  of  Medi- 


ATAVISM.  73 

• 

The  tendency  to  an  alternation  of  generations  in 
the  inheritance  of  disease,  which  has  already  been 
noticed,  appears  to  be  analogous  in  character  to  the 
alternations  determined  by  the  limitation  of  defects  to 
one  sex,  while  the  other  sex  alone  seems  capable  of 
transmitting  them. 

In  many  of  the  lower  animals  the  alternation  of 
generations  is  the  fixed  law  of  generation. 

In  the  aphides  (plant-lice),  for  example,  nine  or 
ten  generations  of  individuals  are  produced  in  succes- 
sion before  those  haying  sexual  organs  and  capable 
of  producing  eggs  make  their  appearance;  and  this 
succession  of  non-sexual  generations  is  uniformly  re- 
peated. 

The  phenomena  of  atavism  has  been  claimed  to  be 
but  a  reversion  of  the  organization  to  characters  be-  / 
longing  to  an  original  ancestor  or  type. 

This,  in  many  instances,  appears  to  be  the  case ; 
but,  in  the  alternations  that  have  been  observed  in  the 
hereditary  transmission  of  disease,  and  even  of  normal 
peculiarities,  the  theory  of  reversion  is  far  from  satis- 
factory. 

In  the  case  of  Rumpless  fowls,  as  stated  by  Mr. 
Hewett,  individuals  with  tail-feathers  are  of  frequent 
occurrence,  and  these,  as  a  rule,  produce  tailless  pro- 
geny.1 

If,  in  the  case  of  individuals  with  tails,  there  is 
reversion  to  the  original  type,  in  those  without  tails, 

cine  and  Surgery,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  221-225,  1813 ;  Edinburgh  Medical  and 
Surgical  Journal,  vol.  xxxvi.,  pp.  317-320,  1831 ;  and  vol.  Ixxvii.,  pp. 
1-10,  1852. 

1  Tegetmeier's  "Poultry-Book,"  p.  231. 


Y4  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

bred  from  parents  with  tails,  there  must  be  reversion 
again  to  the  tailless  form.  From  the  facts,  as  now 
understood,  it  appears  that  two  antagonistic  characters 
are  alike  inherited,  either  one  of  which  may  become 
dominant  in  the  offspring. 

The  alternation  of  the  character,  in  different  gen- 
erations, may  thus  be  produced  by  the  development 
of  the  one  or  the  other  of  two  characters  belonging 
as  strictly  to  the  organization,  through  inheritance,  as 
any  other  part  of  the  system. 

Although  we  may  not  be  able,  in  the  following 
cases,  to  trace  the  principle  of  alternation  in  atavic 
descent,  they  are,  nevertheless,  of  interest  in  this  con- 
nection, from  their  close  resemblance,  in  some  respects, 
to  the  cases  under  discussion. 

"  A  physician  at  Marseilles  relates  a  case  in  which 
deafness  from  birth  occurred  in  three  children  alter- 
nately in  a  family  of  six.  The  parents  were  not  af- 
fected. .  .  .  M .  Saissy  refers  to  a  family  living  at  Aix, 
in  Savoy,  composed  of  seven  children :  the  eldest  is 
deaf  and  dumb,  the  second  hears  perfectly,  the  third 
is  deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  fourth  enjoys  the  same  ad- 
vantage as  the  second;  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  last,  are 
completely  deaf — the  last  but  one  (the  sixth)  in  this 
case  being  an  idiot.  There  was  no  defect  in  either 
parent.  ...  A  similar  case  occurs  in  the  commune 
of  Bessenay,  department  of  the  Rhone ;  in  a  family 
composed  of  eight  children  four  .are  deaf  and  dumb, 
and  alternate  with  four  who  enjoy  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing." 

Claude  relates  the  case  "of  a  woman  who  gave 
birth  to  eight  children  of  one  and  the  other  sex,  the 


ATAVISM.  Y5 

first,  third,  fifth,  and  seventh,  of  whom  attained  the 
ordinary  size,  while  the  other  four  were  dwarfs." 

In  a  family  of  eight  children,  four  sons  alternating 
with  four  daughters,  the  sons  were  all  healthy,  while 
the  daughters  were  all  affected  with  brain-disease 
(hydrocephalus),  the  only  one  living  being  an  infant 
under  treatment.1 

From  the  persistent  appearance  of  the  defects  in 
these  cases  in  regular  alternate  succession,  we  must 
admit  the  probability,  at  least,  of  the  existence  of  some 
hereditary  taint  of  the  system,  derived  from  ancestors 
whose  history  we  are  unable  to  trace. 

In  the  chapter  on  "  Sex  "  may  be  found  cases  in 
which  the  defect  is  limited  to  one  sex ;  and  this,  in 
families  of  both  sexes,  would  result  in  an  alternation 
more  or  less  regular  in  its  inheritance. 

In  a  large  family  we  seldom  find  all  of  the  chil- 
dren resembling  either  the  father  or  the  mother,  and, 
in  many  instances,  the  resemblance  to  a  grandparent 
or  some  more  remote  ancestor  prevails  to  so  great  an 
extent  that  the  obvious  peculiarities  of  the  immediate 
parents  are  obscured.  Prof.  Agassiz3  has  remarked 
that  "  the  offspring  is  not  the  offspring  of  father  and 
mother,  but  of  grandparents  as  well,"  and  he  might 
also  have  included  all  of  the  ancestors  in  the  parental 
enumeration. 

The  alternations  observed  in  the  transmission  of 
ancestral  characters,  and  the  resemblance  of  offspring 

1  The  last  five  cases  are  quoted  from  Mr.  Sedgwick's  paper  on  the 
"  Sexual  Limitation  of  Hereditary  Disease,"  in  the  British  and  Foreign 
Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1861,  pp.  141,  142,  146. 

3  "Agricultural  Report  of  Massachusetts,"  1866-'67,  p.  82. 


76  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

to  a  remote  ancestor,  that  differs  in  many  respects 
from  the  parents,  cannot  be  referred  to  a  "  spon- 
taneous variation "  in  the  law  of  inheritance,  for  we 
cannot  conceive  of  an  effect  without  an  efficient 
cause. 

The  repetition  of  some  preexisting  character  is  so 
uniformly  observed  in  all  cases  of  apparent  variation 
in  the  transmission  of  qualities,  in  which  the  history 
of  the  ancestors  can  be  traced,  that  we  cannot  avoid 
the  conclusion  that  these  peculiarities  in  the  heredity 
of  the  organization  are  the  result  of  some  constant 
and  definite  physiological  law. 

If  the  form  in  which  the  physiological  units  or 
elements  of  the  organization  were  transmitted  could 
be  determined,  the  obscurity  involved  in  this  class  of 
cases  would  in  great  measure  disappear. 

'  In  discussing 'the  subject  of  inherited  resemblance, 
Dr.  Carpenter  remarks  that  "the  question  seems  to 
have  been  entirely  ignored,  whether  the  union  of  two 
different  natures  may  not  produce — as  in  the  combi- 
nation of  an  acid  and  a  base — a  resultant  essentially 
dissimilar  to  either  of  them." 1 

If  two  characters  may  thus  blend  to  form  a  new 
character  essentially  different,  there  could  be  no  con- 
stancy in  the  transmission  of  ancestral  forms  from 
generation  to  generation,  and  a  wide  variation  from 
the  family  type  would  necessarily  result.  There  could 
be  no  uniformity  in  the  leading  characteristics  of  our 
improved  breeds,  and,  with  our  present  knowledge  of 
physiological  science,  the  breeding  of  animals  would 
be  attended  with  the  greatest  uncertainty,  from  our 

1  "Mental  Physiology,"  p.  369. 


ATAVISM.  YT 

inability  to  predict  what  a  given  combination  would 
produce. 

Moreover,  the  phenomena  of  atavism  cannot  be 
reconciled  w^ith  this  hypothesis,  without  the  further 
supposition  that  the  elements  of  the  organization, 
combining  to  form  a  new  compound,  may  be  again 
resolved  into  their  original  constituents. 

"When  characters  that  have  remained  latent  for 
several  generations  make  their  appearance  again,  with 
all  the  peculiarities  that  formerly  distinguished  them, 
it  does  not  seem  probable  that  they  have  passed 
through  a  series  of  transformations  in  the  formation 
of  new  characters,  and,  at  the  same  time,  retained 
their  original  constitution. 

From  the  facts  of  heredity  already  presented  in 
the  cases  cited,  it  must  be  evident  that  the  sum  of  the 
characters  Or  physiological  units  that  enter  into  the 
organization  of  the  animal  cannot  be  represented  in 
the  external  peculiarities  that  alone  are  obvious  to  the 
senses.  It  is  well  known  to  breeders  that  many  of 
the  most  important  characteristics  of  the  organization, 
in  a  given  case,  may  not  appear  upon  the  surface,  or 
in  the  functional  activities  of  the  system,  and  that 
they  can  only  be  traced  in  the  ancestral  history,  and 
in  the  inherited  peculiarities  of  offspring. 

In  the  further  discussion  of  these  peculiar  forms 
of  heredity,  it  will  be  necessary  to  distinguish  between 
the  more  obvious  and  prominent  characters  of  the  ani- 
mal and  those  obscure  characters  that  can  only  be 
shown  to  exist  by  their  hereditary  transmission  to  off- 
spring. The  former  may  be  termed  dominant  char- 
acters, and  the  latter  obscured  or  latent  characters. 


78  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

For  many  years  I  have  been  inclined  to  the  belief 
that  all  characters  are  directly  transmitted  as  physio- 
logical units  or  elements  of  the  organization,  some  of 
which  may  be  dominant,  and  thus  determine  the  ob- 
vious characteristics  of  the  animal,  while  others  re- 
main latent  until  they  are  transmitted  to  offspring  in 
which  favorable  conditions  lead  to  their  development, 
when  they,  in  their  turn,  may  become  dominant,  and 
thus  obscure  other  characters. 

Tnat  characters  are  transmitted  in  their  integrity, 
without  transformation  into  other  characters,  is  clearly 
asserted  by  Herbert  Spencer,  who  says,  "  There  must 
arise  not  an  homogeneous  mean  between  two  parents, 
but  a  mixture  of  organs,  some  of  which  mainly  follow 
the  one  parent,  and  some  the  other."  * 

The  last  clause  of  this  statement  cannot,  however, 
be  literally  accepted  as  a  law  of  inheritance,  as  we 
have  already  seen  that  the  dominant  characters,  in  a 
given  case,  may  be  inherited  from  some  remote  ances- 
tor, while  the  dominant  characters  of  the  parents  may 
become  latent. 

Mr.  Sedgwick,  in  his  paper  on  "  Hereditary  Dis- 
ease," says :  "  It  may  be  observed  that  in  the  offspring 
of  two  dissimilar  parents  there  is  never,  as  a  rule, 
complete  fusion  of  the  two  parents,  but  a  distribution 
of  the  characters  peculiar  to  each ;  and  although  this 
is  less  strongly  remarked  in  the  offspring  of  the  human 
race  than  it  is  in  that  of  the  lower  animals — as,  for  ex- 
ample, in  the  case  of  some  hermaphrodite  insects,  in 
which  the  family  quarterings  may  result  from  specific 
distinctions  of  sex  being  associated  without  fusion  in 

1  "  Principles  of  Biology,"  vol.  i.,  p.  267. 


ATAVISM.  79 

the  same  specimen,  yet,  as  regards  the  inheritance  of 
disease,  it  will  be  found  that  the  morbid  characteristics 
of  one  or  the  other  parent  are  either  completely  re- 
peated or  completely  absent,  but  not  fused  together  in 
the  offspring.  This  is  what  is  meant  in  inheritance 
by  the  doctrine  of  <  election,'  which  is  based  on  the 
observation  that  certain  attributes  of  organization  pe- 
culiar to  one  parent  are  repeated  in  the  offspring ;  and 
it  offers  a  reasonable  explanation  of  the  fact  that  chil- 
dren often  inherit  the  defects  of  one  parent,  while  in 
many  other  respects  they  resemble  the  other ;  and  the 
inheritance  in  these  cases,  both  natural  and  morbid, 
may  sometimes  be  conveyed  to  them  by  atavic  de- 
scent." ' 

If  it  is  admitted  that  the  animal  inherits  an  assem- 
blage of  peculiarities  representing  the  aggregate  of 
parental  characters,  it  must  follow  that  all  of  the  char- 
acters of  all  ancestors  are  in  like  manner  inherited,  as 
each  generation  would  inherit  and  transmit  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  preceding  generation,  and  this,  in  turn, 
would  inherit  and  transmit  the  peculiarities  of  the 
next  preceding,  and  so  on  indefinitely.  The  phenom- 
ena of  atavism  seem  to  show  that  we  cannot  set  a 
limit  to  the  inheritance  of  characters.  Theoretically, 
a  defect  or  peculiarity  may  be  "bred  out,"  as  it  is 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1863,  pp. 
190,  191.  As  an  illustration  of  the  distinct  inheritance  of  qualities, 
the  case  is  given  of  "  the  scarce  egger-moth,  observed  by  Mr.  West- 
wood"  ("Entomologist's  Text-Book,"  p.  397,  1838),  "at  Berlin,  in 
which  the  front-part  of  the  body  and  front-half  of  the  wings  were 
half  male  and  half  female,  and  the  hind-part  and  hind-wings  half  fe- 
male and  half  male,  the  characters  of  the  male  and  female  insect  being 
exhibited  on  opposite  quarters  of  this  specimen." 


80  PKINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

termed,  until  it  is  represented  mathematically  by  a 
fraction  so  small  as  to  scarcely  merit  attention,  and 
yet,  as  frequently  observed,  it  may  again  appear  in  a 
manner  indicating  that  it  has  been  constantly  trans- 
mitted, without  change,  through  a  long  series  of  gen- 
erations. 

Mr.  Sedgwick  remarks,  in  regard  to  atavism  in 
disease,  that  "no  fixed  boundaries,  recognizable  by 
us,  can  be  expected  to  limit  its  operation,  for,  like 
other  general  laws  in  Nature,  unity  in  principle  coex- 
ists with  variety  in  results ;  and  it  is  chiefly  because 
we  are  less  familiar  with  the  results  of  atavism  in  dis- 
ease than  we  are  with  many  other  reproductive  phe- 
nomena, as,  for  .the  sake  of  illustration,  with  memory, 
that  we  hesitate  to  accept  them,  although  they  are 
not,  in  themselves,  more  exceptional  or  peculiar  than 
some  of  those  are  which  we  not  only  never  hesitate  to 
accept,  but  with  which  this  phenomenon  in  morbid 
development  seems  to  be  closely  allied.  For  atavism 
in  disease  appears  to  be  but  an  instance  of  memory  in 
reproduction,  as  imitation  is  expressed  in  direct  de- 
scent ;  and  in  the  same  way  that  memory  never,  as  it 
were,  dies  out,  but  in  some  state  always  exists,  so  the 
previous  existence  of  some  peculiarity  in  organization 
may  likewise  be  regarded  as  never  absolutely  lost  in 
succeeding  generations,  except  by  extinction  of  race." ' 

It  has  been  remarked  that  no  two  animals  are  pre- 
cisely alike,  in  all  details  of  the  organization,  no  mat- 
ter how  close  the  relationship  or  how  striking  the  re- 
semblance ;  and,  in  connection  with  this,  it  has  been 
observed  that  instances  occur  in  which  individuals 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico- CMrurgical  Review^  July,  1863,  p.  197. 


ATAVISM.  81 

present  an  assemblage  of  characters  quite  different 
from  those  that  characterize  the  parents.  These  have 
been  explained  on  the  supposition  that  there  must  be 
a  law  of  "  spontaneity  "  which  is  antagonistic  to  that 
of  heredity,  or  that  the  law  of  heredity  is  not  constant 
in  its  action,  but  limited  by  numerous  exceptions.1 

The  view  we  have  presented  of  the  law  of  inheri- 
tance would  seem  to  preclude  the  necessity  of  any 
such  hypothesis  to  account  for  the  individual  varia- 
tions referred  to.  Many  of  the  cases  of  supposed 
variation  are  fully  explained  on  the  principle  of  atavic 
descent,  which  is,  as  we  have  seen,  but  a  phase  of  the 
great  law  of  heredity. 

If  characters  are  transmitted  as  physiological  units, 
it  will  be  readily  seen  that,  although  an  animal  may 
be  composed  of  precisely  the  same  elements  as  its  an- 
cestors, the  dominance  of  some  of  these,  or  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  elements  themselves,  must  give  rise 
to  individual  peculiarities,  or  even  to  forms  not  pre- 
cisely identical  with  those,  exhibited  in  the  dominant 
characters  of  any  ancestor.  Any  observed  variations 
in  the  inheritance  of  form,  color,  or  general  character- 
istics, may  thus  be  readily  accounted  for,  within  the 
limits  of  the  characters  belonging  to  the  ancestors. 

In  these  cases  of  apparent  variation,  the  similarity 
of  the  offspring  to  its  ancestors  consists  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  same  assemblage  of  characters  which  is 
often  shown  in  a  general  rather  than  a  special  resem- 
blance. From  the  complexity  of  the  elements  trans- 
mitted from  generation  to  generation,  we  cannot  ex- 
pect the  offspring,  in  a  particular  case,  to  be  the  exact 

1  Ribot  on  "  Heredity,"  p.  194,  etc. 


82  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

counterpart,  in  dominant  characters,  of  either  parent 
or  of  any  ancestor ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  we  have 
no  reason  to  believe  that  any  characters  will  appear 
that  have  not  been  derived  by  direct  or  interrupted 
descent  from  some  ancestor. 

When  speaking  of  the  resemblance  of  offspring  to 
ancestors,  in  a  popular  sense,  the  dominant  characters 
are  alone  referred  to ;  but,  as  these,  as  has  been  shown, 
may  constitute  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  elements 
of  the  organization,  a  strict  comparison  of  resemblances 
must  include  a  wider  range  of  characteristics. 

In  this  connection,  the  importance  of  a  full  record 
of  the  pedigrees  of  breeding  animals  will  be  readily 
suggested,  as  a  means  of  tracing  the  history  of  ances- 
tors, for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  characters 
that  are  liable  to  be  transmitted  by  atavic  descent. 
As  the  subject  of  pedigree,  however,  involves  a  num- 
ber of  questions  that  have  not  as  yet  been  examined, 
a  full,  consideration  of  its  practical  bearings  must  be, 
for  the  present,  omitted. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

LAW    OF    CORRELATION. 

THE  external  form  and  general  characteristics  of 
an  individual,  as  determined  by  heredity,  are  the  re- 
sult, as  we  have  seen,  of  the  prominence  of  those 
characters  that  are  made  dominant,  and  the  suppres- 
sion of  others  which,  for  the  time  being,  are  said  to 
be  latent.  In  the  arrangement  of  these  dominant 
characters  in  the  organization,  a  principle  of  develop- 
ment and  suppression  appears  to  prevail,  which  is 
recognized  by  naturalists  as  the  law  of  correlation. 
This  law  may  be  defined  in  general  terms  as  follows : 
Any  peculiarity  in  the  development  of  one  organ,  or 
set  of  organs,  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  correspond- 
ing modification  or  suppression  of  organs  belonging 
to  some  other  part  of  the  system.  In  this  place  we 
shall  only  notice  the  relations  of  this  law  to  heredity, 
reserving  for  another  chapter  its  applications  in  deter- 
mining internal  qualities  from  peculiarities  of  external 
conformation. 

The  ^correlated  structure  of  animals  enables  the 
comparative  anatomist,  from  the  examination  of  a 
single  tooth,  or  fragment  of  bone,  to  determine  not 
only  the  class  and  order  to  which  an  animal  belongs, 
but  its  habits  and  mode  of  life,  and  the  character  of 


84  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

the  food  required  for  its  support.  The  celebrated 
naturalist,  Milne-Edwards,  in  his  article  on  Crustacea, 
says,  "  It  has  long  been  admitted  as  an  axiom  in  ani- 
mal physics  that,  when  any  particular  part  of  the  body 
acquires  a  very  high  degree  of  development,  certain 
other  parts  stop  short  of  their  ordinary  state  of  evolu- 
tion, as  if  the  former  had  obtained  their  unusual  incre- 
ment at  the  cost  of  the  latter." 1 

Cuvier,  the  great  comparative  anatomist,  claimed 
that  "all  organized  beings,  in  their  structure,  form 
a  complete  system,  of  which  the  parts  mutually  cor- 
respond and  conduce  to  the  same  definite  action  by  a 
reciprocal  reaction.  Each  of  these  parts  cannot  be 
changed  without  the  others  changing  also;  and,  by 
consequence,  each  of  these  taken  separately  indicates 
and  gives  all  the  rest." a 

Prof.  Owen,  in  his  valuable  work  on  the  "  Com- 
parative Anatomy  of  the  Vertebrates,"  gives  the  fol- 
lowing illustrations  of  this  law  of  development :  "  As 
vertebrates  rise  in  the  scale,  and  the  adaptive  principle 
predominates,  the  law  of  correlation,  as  enunciated  by 
Cuvier,  becomes  more  operative.  In  the  jaws  of  the 
lion,  e.  g.,  there  are  large  laniaries,  or  canines,  formed 
to  pierce,  lacerate,  and  retain  its  prey.  .  .  .  There  are 
also  compressed,  trenchant,  flesh-cutting  teeth,  which, 
play  upon  each  other  like  scissor-blades  in  the  move- 
ment of  the  lower  upon  the  upper  jaw.  The  lower 
jaw  is  short  and  strong ;  it  articulates  to  the  skull  by  a 
transversely-extended  convexity,  or  condyle,  received 

1  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  i.,  p.  757. 
9  As  quoted  by  Prof.  Owen,  "  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Verte- 
brates," vol.  i.,  p.  27. 


LAW  OF  CORRELATION.  85 

into  a  corresponding  concavity,  forming  a  closely-fit- 
ting joint,  which  gives  a  firm  attachment  to  the  jaw, 
but  almost  restricts  it  to  the  movements  of  opening 
and  closing  the  mouth.  The  jaw  of  the  carnivora  de- 
velops a  plate  of  bone,  of  breadth  and  height  adequate 
for  the  implantation  of  muscles,  with  power  to  inflict 
a  deadly  bite. 

"  These  muscles  require  a  large  extent  of  surface 
for  their  origin  from  the  cranium,  with  concomitant 
strength  and  curvature  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  and  are 
associated  with  a  strong  occipital  crest  and  lofty  dorsal 
spines,  for  vigorous  uplifting  and  retraction  of  the 
head  when  the  prey  has  been  griped. 

"  The  limbs  are  armed  with  short  claws,  and  en- 
dued with  the  requisite  power,  extent,  and  freedom  of 
motion,  for  the  wielding  of  these  weapons.  These  and 
other  structures  of  the  highly-organized  carnivora  are 
so  coordinated  as  to  justify  Cuvier  in  asserting  that 
1  the  form  of  the  tooth  gives  that  of  the  condyle,  of 
the  blade-bone,  and  of  the  claws,  just  as  the  equation 
of  a  curve  evolves  all  its  properties,  and  exactly  as,  in 
taking  each  property  by  itself  as  the  base  of  a  particu- 
lar equation,  one  discovers  both  the  ordinary  equation 
and  all  its  properties,  so  the  claw,  the  blade-bone,  the 
condyle,  the  femur,  and  all  the  other  bones  individu- 
ally, give  the  teeth,  or  are  given  thereby  reciprocally, 
and,  in  commencing  by  any  of  these,  whoever  pos- 
sesses rationally  the  laws  of  the  organic  economy  will 
be  able  to  reconstruct  the  entire  animal.' " 

"  The  law  of  correlation '  receives  as  striking  illus- 
trations from  the  structure  of  the  herbivorous  mam- 
mals." A  limb  terminating  in  a  hoof  serves  for  loco- 


86  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

motion  only;  it  cannot  be  used  as  an  organ  of  prehen- 
sion, to  grasp,  seize,  or  tear.  The  ruminant  hoofed 
animals  all  have  a  cloven  hoof,  and  they  are  the  only 
ones  with  horns  on  the  frontal  bone.  When  the  hoofs 
are  in  one  or  two  pairs,  the  horns  are  also  in  one  or 
two  pairs.  The  horned  ungulates,  with  three  hoofs, 
have  either  one  horn,  or  two  horns  placed  one  before 
the  other,  in  the  middle  of  the  skull.1 

In  the  ruminants  there  is,  moreover,  a  marked  cor- 
relation in  the  form  of  the  teeth,  the  articulation  of 
the  jaw,  which  provides  for  a  free  lateral  motion  in 
grinding  their  food,  and  the  complex  structure  of  the 
digestive  organs. 

Dr.  Carpenter  says  :  "  It  is  perfectly  true  that,  in 
a  great  majority  of  cases,  the  extraordinary  develop- 
ment of  one  organ  is  accompanied  by  a  corresponding 
deficiency  of  development  in  another.  Thus,  in  the 
human  cranium,  the  elements  which  form  the  cover- 
ing or  protection  of  the  brain  are  very  largely  devel- 
oped, while  those  which  constitute  the  face  are  com- 
paratively small.  In  the  long-snouted  herbivorous 
mammals,  and  in  reptiles  and  fishes,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  great  development  of  the  bones  of  the  face 
is  coincident  with  a  very  small  capacity  of  the  cerebral 
cavity. 

"  In  the  bat,  while  the  anterior  extremity  is  widely 
extended,  so  as  to  afford  the  animal  the  means  of  rising 
in  the  air,  the  posterior  is  very  much  lightened,  so  as 
not  to  impede  its  flight.  In  the  kangaroo,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  posterior  members  are  very  large  and 

1  Owen's  "  Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Vertebrates,"  vol.  i.,  pp. 
xxvii.,  xxviii. 


LAW   OF  CORRELATION.  87 

powerful,  enabling  the  animal  to  take  long  leaps,  while 
the  fore-paws  are  proportionally  small." ] 

In  blind  persons  the  sense  of  touch  attains  a  deli- 
cacy that  is  surprising. 

"  It  is  well  known  that  Dr.  Saunderson,  the  cele- 
brated blind  Professor  of  Mathematics  at  Cambridge, 
not  only  acquired  a  very  accurate  knowledge  of  med- 
als, but  could  even  distinguish  genuine  medals  from 
imitations,  more  certainly  than  most  connoisseurs  in 
full  possession  of  their  senses." a 

Cases  are  on  record  of  blind  persons  who  could  not 
only  distinguish  colors,  but  shades  of  the  same  color. 
The  muscular  sense  which  is  employed  by  the  blind, 
in  connection  with  touch,  in  discriminating  the  form, 
peculiarities  of  surface,  and  size  of  objects,  becomes 
in  these  cases  remarkably  developed.8 

It  is  stated  that  persons  affected  with  color-blind- 
ness frequently  have  a  defective  musical  ear.4 

The  sense  of  smell,  in  some  blind  persons,  is  so  ex- 
ceedingly acute  that  they  are  enabled,  by  it  alone,  to 
recognize  persons  not  in  immediate  contact  with  them. 

"  In  the  well-known  case  of  James  Mitchell,  who 
was  deaf,  blind,  and  dumb,  from  his  birth,  it  was  the 
principal  means  by  which  he  distinguished  persons, 
and  enabled  him  at  once  to  perceive  the  entrance  of  a 
stranger." 5 

1  "  Comparative  Physiology,"  p.  130. 

2  "Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  1178. 

3  Ibid.,  loc.  cit. 

4  See  Dr.  Earle's  article  in  the  American  Journal  of  the  Medical 
Sciences,  vol.  xxxv.,  p.  347 ;  and  article  "  Vision,"  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anat- 
omy and  Physiology,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  1453. 

6  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  702. 


88  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Mr.  Darwin  states  that  "  black  dogs,  with  tan-col- 
ored feet,  whatever  breed  they  may  belong  to,  almost 
invariably  have  a  tan-colored  spot  on  the  upper  and 
inner  corners  of  each  eye,  and  their  lips  are  generally 
thus  colored." l 

According  to  the  same  author,  "  white  cats,  if  they 
have  blue  eyes,  are  almost  always  deaf." 

In  the  cases  cited  it  is  shown  that,  if  there  is  the 
"  least  speck  of  color  on  their  fur,"  or  if  even  but  one 
eye  is  not  blue,  the  sense  of  hearing  is  not  lost ;  and, 
in  one  instance,  in  which  the  iris  at  the  end  of  four 
months  began  to  grow  "  dark-colored,"  the  cat  then 
began  to  hear.9 

It  has  been  remarked  that  a  white  spot  or  blaze  on 
the  face  of  a  horse  is  usually  accompanied  by  white 
feet. 

In  the  deer  tribe,  Prof.  Baird  notices  a  singular 
correlation  of  the  horns  and  organs  of  reproduction. 
He  says  :  "  In  all  deer,  except,  perhaps,  the  reindeer, 
if  the  male  be  castrated  when  the  horns  are  in  a  state 
of  perfection,  these  will  never  be  shed  ;  if  the  opera- 
tion be  performed  when  the  head  is  bare,  they  will 
never  be  reproduced  ;  and,  if  done  when  the  secretion 
is  going  on,  a  stunted,  ill-formed,  permanent  horn  is 
the  result." 3 

Mr.  Youatt  remarks  that  a  "  multiplicity  of  horns 
is  not  found  in  any  breed  (of  sheep)  intrinsically  of 
much  value.  It  is  generally  accompanied  by  great 
length  and  coarseness  of  fleece,  and  which,  in  the  ma- 

1  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p.  42. 

5  Loc.  cit.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  396. 

8  "Patent-Office  Report,"  Part  II.,  "Agriculture,"  1851,  p.  111. 


LAW  OF  CORRELATION.  89 

jority  of  these  cases,  assumes  more  the  form  of  hair 
than  of  wool." 1 

The  tusks,  which  attain  a  great  size  in  the  boar, 
are  not  fully  developed  in  swine  that  are  castrated.8 

What  are  called  the  secondary  sexual  characters  of 
the  male  are  not  developed  in  animals  that  are  cas- 
trated ;  and,  among  birds,  it  has  been  observed  that 
females  incapable  of  breeding,  from  age  or  the  effects 
of  disease,  sometimes  assume  the  plumage  and  voice 
of  the  male.3 

The  cock  of  the  Sebright  bantams  should  be  hen- 
tailed  and  without  sickle-feathers,  thus  presenting  a 
close  resemblance  to  the  female.  This  character,  so 
highly  prized  by  exhibitors,  has,  however,  its  disad- 
vantages. 

Mr.  Hewitt  remarks,  in  regard  to  these  breeds: 
"  The  combined  experience  of  many  other  admirers 
of  the  Sebright  bantams  is  concurrent  with  my  own, 
viz.,  that  even  a  very  trifling  disposition  to  sickle- 
feather  in  the  tail  brings  with  it  proportionably  in- 
creased productiveness ;  and  that,  on  the  other  hand, 
absolute  perfection  of  hen-tailed  character  in  the  male 
bird  as  generally  entails  sterility."  * 

The  tail  is  entirely  wanting  in  Rumpless  fowls, 
and  it  is  said  that  they  "  are  sadly  prone  to  lay  unfer- 
tilized eggs." 6 

The  law  of  correlation,  in  its  relations  to  structure 


9  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xv.,  p.  285. 

3  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  68. 

4  Tegetmeier  on  "  Poultry,"  p.  245. 
8  Ibid.,  p.  232. 


90  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

and  function,  furnishes  the  best  explanation  of  the 
difficulty  experienced  by  breeders  in  retaining  and 
developing,  in  their  greatest  perfection,  two  essential- 
ly different  functions  in  the  dominant  characteristics 
of  the  same  animal. 

In  attempting  to  secure  the  highest  development 
of  some  particular  quality,  a  gradual  and,  it  may  be, 
an  undesirable  change  is  so  often  observed  in  the 
qualities  depending  on  the  functional  activity  of  some 
other  part  or  parts  of  the  system  as  to  lead  to  the  be- 
lief that  the  quality  that  is  retained  is  incompatible 
with  a  high  development  of  the  function  that  is  im- 
paired in  its  activity. 

A  deficiency  in  the  production  of  milk  has  often 
been  noticed  in  animals  that  are  remarkable  in  the 
tendency  to  fatten.  Mr.  Price,  a  noted  breeder  of 
Hereford  cattle,  says :  "  Experience  has  taught  me 
that  no  animals  possessing  form,  and  other  requisites 
giving  them  a  great  disposition  to  fatten,  are  calcu- 
lated to  give  much  milk ;  nor  is  it  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose they  should — it  would  be  in  direct  opposition  to 
the  law  of  Nature.  Had  I  willed  it  twenty  years  ago, 
my  belief  is  that  I  could,  by  this  time,  have  bred 
twenty  cows,  purely  from  my  own  herd,  which  should 
have  given  a  sufficient  quantity  of  milk  for  (paying) 
dairy  purposes ;  and  I  am  equally  confident  that,  in 
the  same  period,  I  could  have  bred  a  similar  number 
that  would  not,  at  any  time,  have  given  twenty  quarts 
of  milk  per  day  among  them. 

"  I  feel  confident  I  could  effect  either  of  these 
objects  much  more  easily  and  certainly  than  I  could 
blend  the  two  properties  in  the  same  animal,  retain- 


LAW  OF  CORRELATION.  91 

ing  also  the  form  and  quality  best  adapted  to  live  hard 
and  feed." ' 

It  is  not  claimed  that  high  feeding  qualities  cannot 
be  combined  with  good  milking  properties,  but  that 
it  is  easier  to  excel  in  either  single  quality  than  to  se- 
cure a  high  development  of  both.  It  does  not,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  follow  that  antagonistic  characters 
are  strictly  incompatible.  Additional  illustrations  of 
the  law  of  correlation  may  be  found  in  the  chapters 
relating  to  other  topics ;  the  facts  already  cited  will, 
however,  serve  my  present  purpose,  as  they  clearly 
indicate  that  an  intimate  relation  exists  between  the 
characters  that  are  comprised  in  the  dominant  features 
of  the  organization,  and  that  these  characters  are  trans- 
mitted in  their  integrity,  without  essential  change. 

An  equilibrium  of  the  organization  can  only  be 
obtained  by  an  arrangement  of  its  elements  in  strict 
accordance  with  the  law  of  correlation.  Any  modifi- 
cation of  even  a  single  character  may,  therefore,  in- 
volve corresponding  changes  in  other  parts  of  the  sys- 
tem, and  a  consequent  rearrangement  of  the  dominant 
characteristics. 

When  the  balance  of  the  system  is  in  this  manner 
disturbed,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  extent  of  the 
change  that  may  follow,  as  it  may  result  in  trans- 
posing the  latent  and  dominant  characters,  and  develop 
in  the  offspring  a  resemblance  to  some  remote  ances- 
tor. 

1  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  50.     See  also  Culley  on  "Live- 
Stock,"  fourth  edition,  1807,  p.  87. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

VARIATION. 

OUR  domestic  animals,  in  common  with  other  spe- 
cies, are  endowed  with  a  flexibility  or  plasticity  of  the 
organization  that  enables  them  to  adapt  themselves  to 
the  conditions  in  which  they  are  placed.  As  a  result 
of  a  favorable  change  in  the  conditions  to  which  ani- 
mals are  subjected,  important  modifications  of  the 
system  are  obtained,  that  we  recognize  as  improve- 
ments in  form  and  quality;  while  deterioration  and 
loss  of  valuable  characters  follow  when  the  prevailing 
conditions  of  life  are  unfavorable  to  the  full  and 
healthy  development  of  the  organization. 

From  the  fact  that  variations  are  more  readily  pro- 
duced in  domesticated  varieties  than  in  wild  species, 
it  would  appear  that  the  change  of  conditions  involved 
in  the  process  of  domestication  has  not  only  produced 
a  wide  range  of  variations  in  the  characteristics  of 
animals,  but  developed  an  increased  plasticity  of  the 
organization  that  renders  them  more  susceptible  to  the 
influence  of  modifying  causes.  . 

The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  various 
breeds  of  animals  have  been  produced,  in  the  main, 
by  the  modifying  influences  that  prevail  in  the  locali- 
ties in  which  they  have  originated. 


VARIATION.  93 

In  the  improved  families  of  pure-bred  animals,  the 
influence  of  artificial  conditions  in  modifying  charac- 
ters is  further  shown  in  the  excessive  development 
obtained  in  special  directions. 

The  principal  causes  of  animal  variation  are  cli- 
mate, food,  and  habit ;  the  influence  of  the  first  two, 
in  many  cases,  being  so  intimately  connected  that  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  what  is  due  to  each,  while  all  of 
them  may  at  times  act  together.  Of  the  many  illus- 
trations of  the  modifying  influence  of  climate  that 
might  be  drawn  'from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  we 
shall  only  present  some  general  statements  in  regard 
to  two  of  our  leading  crops. 

Indian-corn  (maize)  has  a  wide  geographical  range, 
but  in  its  distribution  and  development  it  is  influenced 
in  a  great  degree  by  climatic  conditions.  In  North 
America  its  extreme  limits  at  the  North  "  are  defined 
by  the  isothermal  of  67°  for  July,  and  it  may  go  be- 
yond 65°  for  the  summer ;  one  month,  however,  being 
required  at  a  higher  mean  than  this." ] 

In  Northern  Europe,  including  Great  Britain,  the 
comparatively  low  summer  temperature  prevents  the 
ripening  of  this  valuable  cereal,  although  it  is  grown 
in  some  localities  as  a  forage-crop. 

The  time  required  for  ripening  the  crop  in  locali- 
ties where  it  is  grown  varies  greatly  with  the  climate. 
In  its  extreme  northern  range,  where  the  smaller  va- 
rieties only  are  grown,  but  from  two  to  two  and  a  half 
months  are  required  to  bring  it  to  maturity,  while  at 
the  South  a  period  of  from  five  to  six  months  is  neces- 
sary. 

1  Blodgett's  "Climatology  of  the  United  States,"  p.  420. 


94:  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Heller,  in  describing  the  variations  in  maize  culti- 
vated in  Mexico,  states  that  the  time  of  ripening  varies 
from  "  seven  months  to  six  weeks."  l 

At  the  North  the  plant  presents  a  dwarfed  ap- 
pearance, while  at  the  South  the  stalks  are  very 
large,  the  ears  frequently  being  higher  than  a  man 
can  reach. 

A  collection  of  corn  that  I  made  in  18T6,  to  illus* 
trate  the  variations  produced  by  climate,  represents 
many  interesting  features  in  the  character  and  distri- 
bution of  varieties.  > 

At  the  North  the  cob,  as  a  rule,  is  larger  in  pro- 
portion than  in  the  Southern  varieties,  or  in  apparent- 
ly the  same  varieties  grown  in  the  Middle  States.  At 
the  North  the  flint  varieties  are  exclusively  grown, 
while  at  the  South  they  are  entirely  replaced  by  the 
dent  varieties.  The  smallest  well-developed  ear  in 
the  collection  weighs  but  half  an  ounce,  while  the 
largest  ear  turns  the  scale  at  one  pound  eight  and  a 
half  ounces. 

The  influence  of  climate  upon  the  distribution  and 
development  of  wheat  is  hardly  less  marked.  Samples 
in  my  cabinet  from  British  Columbia,  Oregon,  Canada, 
Michigan,  Russia,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Australia, 
present  marked  contrasts  in  their  general  appear- 
ance. 

In  North  America  a  mean  temperature  of  from 
57°  to  65°,  and  in  England  of  60°,  for  the  months 
of  July  and  August,  is  required  for  its  full  develop- 
ment. 

In  1853  the  mean  temperature  of  these  months  in 
1  "Patent-Office  Report,"  "Agriculture,"  1847,  p.  412. 


VARIATION.  95 

England  was  from  57°  to  59°,  which  had  the  effect  to 
dimmish  the  crop  from  one-half  to  one-third.1 

Even  peculiarities  resulting  from  a  slight  differ- 
ence in  locality  may  have  an  important  influence  on 
the  time  required  for  its  growth  and  ripening.  Mar- 
shall states  that,  in  the  Cotswold  Hills,  a  "  stone  might 
be  flung  from  the  country  which  sows  its  wheat  in 
August  into  that  which  sows  its  wheat  in  Decem- 
ber."3 

A  variety  of  food  is  required  by  animals,  so  that 
each  organ  concerned  in  the  process  of  nutrition  may 
perform  its  fair  proportion  of  work,  and  thus  secure  a 
healthy  development,  resulting  in  a  symmetrical  bal- 
ance of  the  system. 

Among  animals  we  cannot  fail  to  observe  that 
the  small  breeds  of  sheep  and  cattle  in  mountainous 
regions  present  a  decided  contrast  to  the  breeds  ob- 
taining an  abundant  supply  of  food  in  the  fertile  val- 
leys of  the  same  country.3 

As  the  relation  of  the  size  of  animals  to  the  sup- 
ply of  food  they  are  provided  with  has  been  noticed 
by  almost  every  writer  on  the  management  of  live- 
stock, we  need  not,  for  the  present,  give  a  detailed 
discussion  of  the  subject.4 

1  Blodgett's  "  Climatology  of  the  United  States,"  p.  446.  See  also 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  1873,  p.  379. 

*  "  Rural  Economy  of  Gloucestershire,"  1789,  vol.  ii.,  p.  62. 

8  Low's  "  Domestic  Animals,"  pp.  41,  264. 

4  " Agricultural  Report  of  Staffordshire,"  p.  174;  "Agricultural 
Report  of  Middlesex,"  p.  406 ;  Youatt  on  "  Cattle,"  p.  625  ;  Youatt  on 
"The  Horse,"  p.  60;  Coventry  on  "Agriculture,"  p.  182;  Dickson's 
"Practical  Agriculture,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  638-640;  Cline  on  "Breeding  and 
Form,"  p.  12. 


96  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

The  great  development  in  fattening  quality  and 
in  early  maturity,  that  characterizes  the  modern  meat- 
producing  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep,  has  been  secured 
by  a  liberal  supply  of  nutritious  food  during  the  pe- 
riod of  growth,  in  connection  with  a  judicious  system 
of  breeding,  that  has  fixed  and  made  dominant  the 
desirable  modifications  thus  obtained. 

The  Spanish  merino  sheep,  imported  into  this 
country  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  were 
valued  principally  for  their  wool,  the  peculiar  system 
of  management  to  which  they  had  been  subjected  for 
many  generations  having  made  them  decidedly  defi- 
cient in  ability  to  fatten  and  in  the  quality  of  their 
flesh. 

Their  descendants,  from  the  influence  of  modified 
habits  and  a  better  supply  of  food,  present  such  a 
wide  departure  from  the  original  type,  in  the  greater 
weight  and  quality  of  fleece,  in  the  increased  tendency 
to  fatten,  and  the  marked  improvement  in  the  quality 
of  flesh,  that  they  are  justly  entitled  to  the  distinctive 
appellation  of  American  merinoes  which  is  now  gen- 
erally given  them. 

The  breeders  of  merino  sheep  have  been  directing 
their  attention  almost  exclusively  to  the  improvement 
of  the  fleece,  and  the  greater  value  of  the  improved 
breed  for  the  purposes  of  the  feeder  and  the  butcher 
has  been  obtained  through  the  means  adopted  for 
the  development  of  other  characters. 

It  is  perhaps  impossible  to  obtain  any  decided 
modification  of  a  single  character  without  producing 
corresponding  modifications  of  other  parts  of  the  or- 
ganization. 


VARIATION.  97 

In  the  improvement  of  the  mutton-breeds  of  sheep, 
breeders  have  almost  uniformly  aimed  to  secure  great- 
er symmetry  in  their  general  proportions,  in  connec- 
tion with  early  maturity,  and  to  diminish  any  ten- 
dency to  coarseness  that  may  have  existed  in  the  ori- 
ginal breed. 

In  all  of  the  improved  breeds  of  sheep  a  general 
refinement  of  the  system  has  been  developed,  as  the 
result  of  the  improvements  that  have  been  made  in 
special  characters,  and  this  has  apparently  produced  a 
finer  fibre  of  wool,  notwithstanding  the  lack  of  atten- 
tion to  this  particular  quality  on  the  part  of  breeders. 

In  1835  Mr.  Youatt,  assisted  by  Mr.  Powell,  a 
manufacturer  of  microscopes  in  London,  made  meas- 
urements of  the  wool-fibres  of  different  breeds,  which 
were  published  in  1840,  in  his  work  on  "  Sheep,"  1  as 
follows  : 

No.  of  Fibres  to 
the  Inch. 

Saxon      .        .   •     .    <v  .     •  840 

Merino       .        ;        .  .    750  (from  Lord  Western's  flock) 

Odessa  wool    ...        750 

Negretti     .        .        .  .    750 

Common  merino     .        .        750 

Australian  wool  .        .  .     750  »- 

Now  South  Wales,  wool  .        750  I   vERSITl 

McArthur's  Australian  wool,  780  (Saxon 

Leicester         S      .     *;  .        500 


"  (from  Ireland)  .  560 
Cheviot  .  .  ...  500 
South-Down  .  y  .'  660 

The  finest  sample  measured  was  from  the  Deccan 

1  Youatt  on  "  Sheep,"  p.  87. 


98 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BEEEDING. 


black  sheep  of  India,  which  gave  1,000  fibres  to  the 
inch. 

In  1864-'65  I  measured  wool  from  several  flocks, 
with  the  following  result. 

"With  the  exception  of  the  Saxon,  of  which  the 
date  of  shearing  was  not  known,  the  samples  were  all 
from  fleeces  of  1864. 


Saxon  ram 
"     ewe 
Silesian  ram  . 


No.  of  Fibres  to 
the  Inch. 

.     1242  (from  flock  of  W.  H.  Ladd,  Ohio). 
1347      *'        u         "    "      "        " 
1352      "        ( 


Merino  ram  (Silver-mine)  1212 
"  "  (Sweepstakes)  1186 
"  "  (Gold-drop)  1185 
"  ewe  (Old  Queen)  1275 
"  (Queen,  2d)  1183 
"  (Queen,  3d)  1138 
"  (Queen,  4th)  1223 
"  (Queen,  5th)  1274 
1164 


ram 


Merino  ewe 

u  u 
n  n 
u  u 

Grade  merino  ewe 

u  u  <t 

U  U  II 

South-Down  ewe  . 

U  II  U 
II  U  II 
U  U  it 


1064 

1164 

1023 

1022 

1077 

1249 

1248 

732 

708 

742 

845 


W.    Chamberlain, 

New  York. 
E.  Hammond,  Vt. 


u 
tl 
u 
a 

a 
u 
u 
a 

u 
a 
u 
<t 
u 
u 
u 
u 
u 


Hon.  Ohas.  Rich, 
Lapeer,  Michigan. 


II  U 

U  ti 

u  u 

u  u 


Mich.  Agricul.  Col. 


In  1877  I  measured  samples  of  wool  obtained  at 


VARIATION. 


99 


the  Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadelphia,  in  1876, 
as  follows : 


No.  of  Fibres  to 

the  Inch. 

Cheviot  ewe, 

842 

from 

tt         tt 

579 

tt 

"       lamb 

827 

tt 

tt          tt 

732 

tt 

Leicester  .     . 

685 

tt 

it 

682 

« 

Lincoln     .     . 

769 

u 

tt 

731 

u 

tt 

734 

tt 

Grade  Lincoln 

874 

tt 

tt          tt 

790 

tt 

Merino    .    . 

1199 

tt 

Ed.  Henty,  Portland,  Victoria,  Aust. 


1230 

1173 

1500 
1376 
1079 
1266 

1325 
1180 

1334 
1184 
1208 


i.  Murray,  Brie-Brie,    ' 

tt          tt  tt       tt       tt  tt 

Wm.  H.  Bullivant,  "  " 

tt        tt  tt  tt  tt 

Ovidio  Zubiaurre,  Buenos  Ayres,  Ar- 
gentine Republic. 

Ovidio  Zubiaurre,  Buenos  Ayres,  Ar- 
gentine Republic. 

M.  Morgan,  Argentine  Republic. 

R.  Goldsbrough,  Melbourne,  Victoria, 
Australia. 

R.  Goldsbrough,  Melbourne,  Victoria, 
Australia. 

Thos.  Cummings,  Victoria,  Australia. 

William  Lewis,  " 

tt  tt  tt  tt 

Ross  and  Jas.  Randen  "  " 

William  Lang,  Wargam,  New  South 
Wales,  Australia. 

Buenos  Ayres,  Argentine  Republic. 

Wilfren  Latham,  Los  Alamos,  Argen- 
tine Republic. 

Wilfren  Latham,  Los  Alamos,  Argen- 
tine Republic. 

Mariano  TJnsue,  Buenos  ^.yres,  Ar- 
gentine Republic. 

Geronimo  Iraizos,  Loberia,  Argentine 
Republic. 


100 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


No.  of  Fibres  to 

the  Inch. 

.    1450  from  J.  "W.  Corrales,  Buenos  Ayres,  Argen- 
tine Eepublic. 

Negretti  .     .     1138      "    George  Stegman,  Bnenos  Ayres,  Ar- 
gentine Kepublic. 
Charles  J.  Guerrero,  Buenos  Ayres, 

Argentine  Eepublic. 
Francisco  Chas,  Buenos  Ayres,  Ar- 
gentine Kepublic. 

Samuel  B.  Hale,  Buenos  Ayres,  Ar- 
gentine Eepublic. 
M.  Morgan,  Buenos  Ayres,  Argentine 

Eepublic. 

Emilio  Duportal,  Buenos  Ayres,  Ar- 
gentine Eepublic. 

Emilio  Duportal,  Buenos  Ayres,  Ar- 
gentine Eepublio. 


Merino 


.     .  1081 

"       .     .  1162 

"       .     .  1266 

Kambouillet,  1035 

"  1062 

"  1150 


As  these  samples,  from  widely  different  localities, 
are,  without  exception,  much  finer  than  the  specimens 
measured  by  Mr.  Youatt,  we  may  safely  attribute  the 
change  to  the  same  causes  that  have  produced  the 
modifications  of  form  and  feeding  qualities  that  char- 
acterize all  of  the  improved  breeds. 

The  Kerry  cattle  of  Ireland  are  a  small  and  hardy 
race.  The  scanty  supply  of  coarse  food  obtained  on 
their  native  hills,  by  industrious  efforts,  gives  a  slow 
growth  and  a  late  development  of  the  organization,  so 
that  the  heifers,  it  is  said,  do  not  breed  until  six  or 
seven  years  old. 

Animals  of  this  breed  raised  in  Massachusetts,  un- 
der more  favorable  conditions  for  development,  are 
larger  than  the  original  type,  and  mature  earlier,  the 
heifers  breeding  at  the  age  of  three  years. 


VARIATION.  101 

As  the  climate  of  Massachusetts  is  not  so  mild  and 
uniform  as  that  of  Ireland,  we  must  attribute  the 
changes  observed  in  these  cattle  to  the  influence  of 
shelter  during  the  winter,  in  connection  with  a  better 
supply  of  food. 

It  is  a  well-known  law  of  the  organization  that  the 
highest  development  of  any  particular  organ,  or  set  of 
organs,  can  only  be  attained  by  their  repeated  and 
systematic  exercise. 

The  athlete,  as  well  as  the  horse  in  training  for  a 
race,  must  perform  an  amount  of  work  that  taxes  the 
system  severely,  to  secure  that  strength  and  develop- 
ment of  the  muscular  system  that  fit  him  for  the 
best  exhibition  of  his  powers.  •  The  highest  mental 
development  can  only  be  obtained  by  severe  intellect- 
ual effort. 

Mr.  Darwin  has  shown  that  the  proportional  weight 
of  the  wing-bones  of  wild-ducks  is  greater  than  in  tame 
varieties,  while  the  proportional  weight  of  the  leg- 
bones  is  greatest  in  the  latter.1 

The  activity  of  the  glandular  system  depends 
largely  upon  the  demands  made  upon  it,  in  accordance 
with  the  same  principle. 

Dr.  Carpenter,  in  his  article  on  the  "  Varieties  of 
Mankind,"  says  :  "  Another  remarkable  fact,  relative 
to  the  oxen  of  South  America,  is  recorded  by  M. 
Roulin.  In  Colombia  the  practice  of  milking  cows 
was  laid  aside,  owing  to  the  great  extent  of  the  farms 
and  other  circumstances.  In  a  few  generations  the 
natural  structure  of  the  parts  and  the  natural  state  of 
the  function  have  been  restored,  the  secretion  of  milk 

1  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  L,  p.  345. 


102  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

taking  place  only  so  long  as  the  calf  remains  with 
the  mother,  and  ceasing  if  it  dies  or  is  removed. 
Hence  we  have  a  valuable  confirmation  of  the  be- 
lief previously  entertained,  that  the  continued  pro- 
duction of  milk  by  the  European  breeds  of  cows  is 
a  modified  function  in  the  animal  economy,  origi- 
nating in  an  artificial  habit  kept  up  through  many 
generations,  and  dependent  upon  a  modification  of 
structure  which  that  habit  has  been  the  means  of  in- 
ducing." 1 

The  practice,  too  generally  prevailing,  of  raising 
young  animals  by  means  of  nurses,  so  that  the  mothers 
may  go  "  dry  "  and  be  fitted  for  exhibition,  must  re- 
sult, in  a  few  generations,  in  a  serious  deficiency  of 
the  milking  qualities. 

Sir  Charles  Lyell  informs  us  that  "  some  English- 
men engaged  in  conducting  the  mining  operations  of 
the  Real  del  Monte  Company,  in  Mexico,  carried  out 
with  them  some  greyhounds  of  the  best  breed,  to  hunt 
the  hares  which  abound  in  that  country.  The  great 
platform  which  is  the  scene  of  sport  is  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  about  nine  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  and  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  stands  ha- 
bitually at  the  height  of  about  nineteen  inches.  It 
was  found  that  the  greyhounds  could  not  support  the 
fatigues  of  a  long  chase  in  this  attenuated  atmos- 
phere, and  before  they  could  come  up  with  their  prey 
they  lay  down  gasping  for  breath  ;  but  these  same  ani- 
mals have  produced  whelps  which  have  grown  up  and 
are  not  in  the  least  degree  incommoded  by  the  want 
of  density  in  the  air,  but  run  down  the  hares  with  as 

1  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  1312. 


VARIATION.  103 

much  ease  as  the  fleetest  of  their  race  in  this  conn- 

try.'" 

In  the  modifications  of  form,  habits,  instincts,  and 
general  activity  of  the  functions  of  organs,  resulting 
from  the  agencies  under  consideration,  the  principle 
of  correlation,  to  which  we  have  already  referred,  may 
be  readily  traced. 

We  cannot,  in  fact,  make  a  decided  change  in  any 
part  of  the  system  without  producing  a  corresponding 
modification  of  some  other  part  that  is  correlated 
with  it. 

The  tendency  to  early  maturity,  which  is  so  highly 
developed  in  the  meat-producing  breeds,  is  accom- 
panied with  a  change  in  the  period  of  dentition,  and 
this  fact  has  to  be  taken  into  account  in  determining 
the  age  of  animals  by  the  teeth.3 

There  is  not  only  a  difficulty  in  producing  a  con- 
siderable modification  of  several  characters  at  the  same 
time,  but  there  is  also  the  danger  of  suppressing  some 
character  we  wish  to  retain,  by  the  development  of  a 
new  one  not  in  harmony  with  it. 

Family  characteristics  are  produced  by  limiting 
the  range  of  variations  to  the  particular  standard  the 
breeder  wishes  to  establish.  The  greatest  skill  will 
be  required  in  establishing  the  family  type,  to  retain,, 
in  connection  with  the  desired  characters,  the  qual- 
ities that  give  vigor  to  the  constitution  and  insure 
an  active  performance  of  the  function  of  reproduc- 
tion, and  to  prevent,  at  the  same  time,  the  develop- 

1  Quoted  from  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  iv., 
p.  1303. 

2  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xv.,  p.  323. 


104  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

merit  of  peculiarities  that  are  in  themselves  objection- 
able. 

From  the  manner  in  which  family  characters  are 
produced,  it  will  be  exceedingly  difficult  to  ingraft 
any  new  character  upon  a  family  without  destroying, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  its  specific  characteristics. 
In  the  improved  breeds,  and  especially  in  those  in 
which  early  maturity  and  the  tendency  to  lay  on  fat 
are  highly  developed  by  artificial  treatment,  the  great 
predominance  of  one  group  of  characters  seems  to  in^ 
volve  an  unstable  condition  of  the  organization,  and  a 
consequent  tendency  to  further  variation. 

It  is  often  remarked  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  re- 
tain a  given  character  than  to  produce  it.  If  the  con- 
ditions that  gave  rise  to  a  particular  character  are 
changed,  the  character  itself  must  be  changed  also. 
It  is  a  common  mistake  of  those  not  familiar  with  the 
principles  of  breeding  and  the  causes  of  variation,  to 
suppose  that  the  highly-artificial  characters  of  im- 
proved breeds  can  be  retained  in  the  absence  of  the 
conditions  that  produced  them. 

If  high  feeding  has  developed  a  variation  in  a  par- 
ticular direction,  a  scanty  supply  of  food  would  cer- 
tainly destroy  it,  and  produce  a  variation  of  an  oppo- 
site character.  Improved  characters  can  only  be  made 
permanent  by  breeding  together  the  animals  that  pos- 
sess them,  and  continuing  without  variation  the  same 
system  of  management  that  originally  produced  them. 

Improvements  that  have  been  effected  by  better 
care  and  an  abundant  supply  of  food  for  many  genera-  - 
tions,  may  be  lost  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  by 
placing  the  animals  under  less  favorable  conditions 


VARIATION.  105 

and  diminishing  their  supply  of  food.  A  single  illus- 
tration of  the  effects  of  neglect  will  be  given  : 

"  During  the  French  Revolutionary  War  the  ex- 
cessive price  of  corn  attracted  the  attention  of  the  Gla- 
morganshire farmers  to  the  increased  cultivation  of 
it,  and  a  great  proportion  of  the  best  pastures  were 
turned  over  by  the  plough — cattle  were  almost  entire- 
ly neglected.  .  .  .  The  natural  consequence  of  inat- 
tention and  starvation  was,  that  the  breed  greatly  de- 
generated in  its  disposition  to  fatten,  and,  certainly, 
with  many  exceptions,  but  yet  as  their  general  char- 
acter, the  Glamorganshire  cattle  became  and  are  flat- 
sided,  sharp  in  the  hip-joints  and  shoulders,  high  in 
the  rump,  too  long  on  the  legs,  with  thick  skins,  and 
a  delicate  constitution."  * 

"  It  is  well  known  that  defective  sanitary  arrange^ 
ments  in  the  dwellings  of  the  poor  may,  by  primarily 
affecting  the  parents,  impair  the  physical  development 
of  their  offspring,  and  that  congenital  deformities  are, 
for  example,  sometimes  the  result  of  the  continued 
deprivation  of  light,  which  thus  indirectly  induces  an 
arrest  of  development,  such  as  can  be  produced  direct 
ly  and  at  will  in  the  case  of  tadpoles,  which,  in  the 
absence  of  light,  fail  to  become  frogs." a 

"  The  effect  of  darkness  in  producing  deformities 
is  well  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  French  historical 
painter,  Ducornet,  who  used  to  paint  with  his  feet, 
having  been  born  without  arms,  of  poor  parents  living 
in  one  of  the  dark  caverns  under  the  fortifications  of 

1  Youatton"Cattle,"p.  51. 

2  Sedgwick,in  British  and  Foreign  Medico-  CJtirurgical  Review^  July, 
1863,  p.  174. 


106  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Lille.  It  appears  that  several  of  the  deformed  beg- 
gars in  Paris  had  also  been  born  at  Lille,  and  that  the 
effect  of  the  absence  of  light  in  these  underground 
places,  in  producing  malformed  births,  was  so  notori- 
ous that  the  magistrates  of  Lille  issued  strict  orders  to 
prohibit  the  poor  from  taking  up  their  abode  in  them."  * 

Variations  frequently  occur  in  particular  localities, 
that  cannot  be  explained  on  account  of  the  obscure 
action  of  the  agencies  that  produce  them.  Such  va- 
riations are  said  to  be  the  result  of  endemic  influences, 
which  is  a  convenient  name  for  local  agencies  that  are 
not  as  yet  fully  understood. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  obscure  action  of  endemic 
causes  of  variation,  the  following  examples  are  given  : 
In  the  case  of  a  family  which  dwelt  alternately  at 
Paris  and  Bordeaux,  "  the  children  engendered  at 
Bordeaux  were  all  born  deaf-mutes ;  the  children  en- 
gendered at  Paris  were  all  endowed,  as  their  parents, 
with  perfect  integrity  of  hearing.  And  this  endemic 
influence  is  still  more  clearly  shown  in  the  case  re- 
corded by  Puybonnieux  ('  Mutisme  et  Surdite,'  p.  30, 
1846),  of  a  married  couple  with  eight  children,  of 
whom  five  were  deaf-mutes;  four  of  these  last  and 
two  children  who  could  speak  were  born  at  Rebre- 
chien,  at  a  house  called  Le  Jeu  de  Paume,  situated 
near  the  forest  of  Orleans,  in  a  place  elevated  and  ap- 
parently healthy;  nevertheless,  the  people  who  had 
dwelt  there  before  the  married  couple  referred  to,  had 
had  three  children,  of  whom  two  were  deaf-mutes." 3 

1  Medical  Gazette,  vol.  x.,  p.  848,  1832  ;  quoted  by  Scdgwick  in  foot- 
note,  loc.  cit.,  p.  174. 

2  British  and  Foreign  Medico-Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1863,  p.  175. 


VARIATION.  107 

The  development  of  special  characters  in  our  do- 
mestic animals,  and  their  consequent  improvement  in 
a  particular  direction,  is  apparently  limited  by  the  ten- 
dency to  diverse  variations,  from  the  increased  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  organization  to  the  influence  of  modi- 
fying agencies,  and  the  defective  equilibrium  of  the 
organization  arising  from  the  excessive  predominance 
of  a  single  character.  If  a  variation  in  a  special  direc- 
tion is  made  at  the  expense  of  constitutional  vigor, 
integrity  of  the  nutritive  organs,  and  fecundity,  it  be- 
comes an  abnormal  character  that  cannot  be  perpetu- 
ated. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FECUNDITY. 

THE  conditions  of  the  animal  organization  that 
have  an  influence  upon  the  function  of  reproduction 
seem  to  require  more  than  a  passing  notice.  The  fer- 
tility of  animals  is  frequently  influenced  by  changes 
in  their  surroundings  and  habits  that  cannot,  in  them- 
selves, be  considered  unfavorable  to  the  healthy  action 
of  the  system. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  procreative  powers 
.are  impaired,  or  even  entirely  wanting,  in  many  wild 
species,  when  placed  in  confinement.  The  elephant, 
the  tiger,  squirrels,  monkeys,  parrots,  and  many  other 
animals,  it  is  said,  rarely,  if  ever,  breed  when  subject- 
ed to  man's  control.  Mr.  Darwin,  on  the  authority  of 
Mr.  Bartlett,  records  the  remarkable  fact  that  "  lions 
breed  more  freely  in  traveling  collections  than  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens."1 

The  flying-squirrel,  when  breeding  in  captivity, 
has  not  been  known  to  produce  more  than  two  young 
at  a  birth,  while  in  a  state  of  nature  it  produces  from 
three  to  six." 

"The  African  ostrich,  though  perfectly  healthy 

1  "Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  185. 
8  Darwin,  loc.  cit.,  p.  187. 


FECUNDITY.  109 

and  living  long,  in  the  south  of  France  never  lays 
more  than  from  twelve  to  fifteen  eggs,  though  in  its 
native  country  it  lays  from  twenty-five  to  thirty." l 

Lord  Somerville  says  the  Spanish  merino  sheep, 
in  England,  when  first  imported,  had  a  tendency  to 
barrenness  and  "  there  was  a  great  deficiency  of  milk 
in  the  ewes," 2  which  he  attributes  to  the  severe  jour- 
neys the  sheep  were  accustomed  to  make  in  Spain. 
As  a  deficiency  in  the  secretion  of  milk  and  a  ten- 
dency to  barrenness  have  not  been  observed  in  these 
sheep  when  removed  to  other  countries,  these  defects 
in  England  must  have  been  owing  to  a  change  in  the 
conditions  of  life,  rather  than  to  a  previous  habit  of 
the  system. 

According  to  M.  Roulin,  "  in  the  hot  valleys  of 
the  equatorial  Cordilleras,  sheep  are  not  fully  fecund," 
and  geese,  taken  to  the  lofty  plateau  of  Bogota,  did 
not  at  first  breed  well.8 

Mr.  Darwin  says :  "  In  Europe  close  confinement 
has  a  marked  effect  on  the  fertility  of  the  fowl :  it  has 
been  found  in  France  that,  with  fowls  allowed  con- 
siderable freedom,  only  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  eggs 
failed ;  when  allowed  less  freedom  forty  per  cent, 
failed  ;  and,  in  close  confinement,  sixty  out  of  the 
hundred  were  not  hatched." 4 

Mr.  Darwin  was  assured  that  "  those  animals 
which  usually  breed  freely  under  confinement,  rarely 

1  Darwin,  loc.  cit,  p.  191. 

9  Somerville's  "  Facts  and  Observations,"  p.  14  ;  quoted  in  Youatt 
on  "Sheep,"  p.  181. 

3  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  197. 

4  Loc.  «'/.,  p.  198. 


HO  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

breed,  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  within  a  year  or  two 
after  their  first  importation,'5  and  he  adds  that,  "  when 
an  animal  which  is  generally  sterile  under  confinement 
happens  to  breed,  the  young  apparently  do  not  inherit 
this  power,  for,  had  this  been  the  case,  various  quad- 
rupeds and  birds,  which  are  valuable  for  exhibition, 
would  have  become  common."  * 

"  The  carnivora  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  were 
formerly  less  freely  exposed  to  the  air  and  cold  than 
at  present ;  and  this  change  of  treatment,  as  I  was  as- 
sured by  the  former  superintendant,  Mr.  Miller,  great- 
ly increased  their  fertility." a 

From  the  preceding  statements  it  might  be  in- 
ferred that  the  state  of  domestication  was  not  favor- 
able to  fertility;  but  we  find,  nevertheless,  that  do- 
mesticated varieties  are  more  prolific  than  wild  species. 
Tame  geese  and  ducks  lay  many  more  eggs  than  wild 
ones.  Dogs  have  a  larger  number  of  young  at  a  birth 
than  their  wild  cousins,  the  wolf  and  the  fox. 

The  tame  varieties  of  swine  are  more  prolific  than 
wild  species.  "  The  wild  rabbit  is  said  generally  to 
breed  four  times  yearly,  and  to  produce  from  four  to 
eight  young;  the  tame  rabbit  breeds  six  or  seven 
times  yearly,  and  produces  from  four  to  eleven  young." 

Wild  pigeons  do  not  breed  so  often  as  tame  varie- 
ties, and  Macgillivray  states  that,  while  the  wild  rock- 
pigeon  breeds  but  twice  a  year.  "  the  same  pair,  when 
tamed,  generally  breed  four  times." ' 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  195. 
9  Ibid.,  p.  185. 

3  "  Principles  of  Biology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  457 ;  "  Animals  and  Plants 
under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  139. 


FECUNDITY.  HI 

The  greater  fecundity  of  domesticated  varieties, 
as  compared  with  that  of  wild  species,  is,  in  great 
measure,  owing  to  a  better  supply  of  food  throughout 
the  year,  and  the  more  uniform  conditions  in  which 
they  are  placed. 

The  activity  of  the  reproductive  organs  is  neces- 
sarily dependent  upon  the  function  of  nutrition  which 
supplies  the  materials  concerned  in  its  operations. 

Dr.  Carpenter  says,  "  There  is  a  certain  degree  of 
antagonism  between  the  nutritive  and  the  generative 
functions,  the  one  set  being  executed  at  the  expense 
of  the  other." ' 

A  certain  activity  of  the  nutritive  functions  is  re- 
quired to  secure  the  greatest  fertility  in  both  plants 
and  animals.  When  the  function  of  nutrition  is  im- 
paired by  disease,  or  when  the  supply  of  food  is  not 
sufficient  for  the  wants  of  the  system,  the  reproduc- 
tive powers  suffer  a  corresponding  decrease  in  their 
activity. 

Sheep  bred  on  rich  pastures  are  more  likely  to 
produce  twin  lambs  than  those  gaining  a  scanty  sub- 
sistence in  less  favored  localities. 

It  is  said  that,  "among  the  barren  hills  of  the 
west  of  Scotland,  two  lambs  will  be  borne  by  about 
one  ewe  in  twenty,  whereas  in  England  something 
like  one  ewe  in  three  will  bear  two  lambs."  a 

While  full  feeding  seems  to  increase  the  fecundity 
of  varieties,  any  excess  in  the  nutritive  activity  of  the 
system  will  as  readily  impair  the  powers  of  reproduc- 
tion. 

1  "Comparative  Thysiology,"  p.  147. 

2  "Principles  of  Biology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  469. 


112  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

In  flowering  plants,  "it  is  well  known  that  an 
over-supply  of  nutriment  will  cause  an  evolution  of 
leaves  at  the  expense  of  the  flowers,  so  that  what  actu- 
ally would  have  been  flower-buds  are  converted  into 
leaf -buds ;  or,  the  parts  of  the  flower  essentially  con- 
cerned in  reproduction,  namely,  the  stamens  and  pistil, 
are  converted  into  f  oliaceous  expansions,  as  in  the  pro- 
duction of  '  double '  flowers  from  i  single '  ones  by  cul- 
tivation ;  or,  the  fertile  florets  of  the  '  disk,'  in  com- 
posite species,  such  as  the  dahlia,  are  converted  into 
the  barren  but  expanded  florets  of  the  'ray.'  And 
the  gardener  who  wishes  to  render  a  tree  more  pro- 
ductive of  fruit  is  obliged  to  restrain  its  luxuriance  by 
pruning,  or  to  limit  its  supply  of  food  by  trenching 
around  the  roots." 

"  During  the  period  of  rapid  growth,  when  all  the 
energies  of  the  system  are  concentrated  upon  the  per- 
fection of  its  individual  structure,  the  reproductive 
system  remains  dormant,  and  is  not  aroused  until  the 
diminished  activity  of  the  nutritive  functions  allows 
it  to  be  exercised  without  injury  to  them."  * 

While  the  period  of  rapid  growth  is  not  favorable 
to  the  development  of  the  reproductive  powers,  from 
the  great  preponderance  in  the  system  of  the  nutritive 
functions,  it  will  also  be  found  that  any  marked  de- 
ficiency in  the  processes  of  nutrition,  as  in  the  decline 
of  life,  will  result  in  a  decrease  and  final  loss  of  fer- 
tility. The  age  of  an  animal  will  thus  have  an  impor- 

1  Carpenter's  "  Comparatire  Physiology,"  p.  147.  Root-pruning,  as 
a  remedy  for  "  unf ruitf ulnesse  in  trees,"  was  recommended  by  Sir 
Hugh  Plat,  in  his  "  Garden  of  Eden,"  fifth  edition,  published  in  London, 
1659,  p.  162. 


FECUNDITY.  113 

tant  influence  on  fecundity,  through  the  variations  in- 
volved in  the  nutritive  functions. 

In  a  preceding  chapter  (page  36)  the  relations  of 
age  to  fecundity  have  been  noticed,  in  discussing  the 
influence  of  immaturity  in  the  parents  upon  the  de- 
velopment of  their  offspring. 

It  was  there  shown  that  the  eggs  of  young  animals 
were  comparatively  small  and  few  in  number. 

The  sow  and  the  bitch,  breeding  at  an  early  age, 
have  comparatively  few  young  in  a  litter ;  at  the  pe- 
riod of  maturity  the  number  reaches  a  maximum,  and, 
at  an  advanced  age,  the  number  is  diminished.  "  The 
young  hamster  produces  only  from  three  to  six  young 
ones,  while  that  of  a  more  advanced  age  produces 
from  eight  to  sixteen."  x 

Similar  variations  in  the  number  of  young  at  dif- 
ferent ages  have  been  observed  in  other  animals. 

The  quality  of  food  seems  to  exercise  an  influence 
on  the  reproductive  functions,  but  the  data  for  a  full 
discussion  of  the  subject  are  as  yet  wanting.  In  the 
development  of  the  bee,  the  form  of  the  cell  and  the 
character  of  the  food  determine  the  fertility  or  non- 
fertility  of  the  perfect  insect,  and  it  is  also  claimed 
that  in  insects  the  sex  is,  in  some  cases,  determined 
by  the  process  of  nutrition.2 

A  large  proportion  of  sugar  in  the  food  is  supposed 
to  interfere  with  the  reproductive  functions.3 

Prof.  Tanner,  in  his  paper  on  the  reproductive 
powers  of  animals,  says :  "  The  general  system  of  diet 

1  "  Principles  of  Biology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  438. 

2  The  Popular  Science  Monthly,  April,  1874,  p.  761. 

8  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Socisty,  1865,  p.  267. 


114  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

must  also  be  looked  upon  as  taking  its  share  in  influ- 
encing the  reproductive  functions.  When  the  fall  of 
rain  has  been  small,  and  the  herbage  more  than  usu- 
ally parched,  we  find  unusual  difficulty  in  getting  ordi- 
nary farm-stock'  to  breed — a  dry  dietary  is  very  un- 
favorable for  breeding  animals,  and  very  much  retards 
successful  impregnation.  On  the  other  hand,  rich, 
juicy,  and  succulent  vegetation  is  very  generally  favor- 
able to  breeding.  Apart,  therefore,  from  the  direct 
influence  of  the  food  given,  it  is  certain  that  the  con- 
dition in  which  it  is  consumed  materially  influences 
the  breeding  powers."  1 

Mr.  Mills,  in  his  "  Treatise  on  Cattle,"  published 
in  1776,  remarks  that "  mares  which  have  been  brought 
up  in  the  stable  on  dry  food,  and  afterward  turned  to 
grass,  do  not  breed  at  first ;  some  time  is  required  to 
accustom  them  to  this  new  aliment."  2 

In  the  wild  species  that  breed  twice  a  year  it  has 
been  stated  that  the  time  of  breeding  is  determined 
by  the  abundance  of  food ;  but  this  does  not  appear 
to  be  the  case  with  migratory  birds,  in  which  the  im- 
pulse to  nest-building  and  migration  occur  together, 
at  an  early  period  in  the  spring,  before  they  can  ob- 
tain an  abundant  supply  of  food. 

There  seems  to  be  a  marked  relation  between  the 
size  of  animals  and  their  fecundity,  which  may  per- 
haps be  owing,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  modifying  influ- 
ence of  the  nutritive  functions.  Throughout  the  en- 
tire animal  kingdom  the  small  species  of  animals  ap- 
pear to  be  more  prolific  than  large  ones,  and,  as  a  rule, 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society ,  1865,  p.  269. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  p.  66. 


FECUNDITY.  115 

they  breed  at  an  earlier  age,  and  at  shorter  intervals, 
and  produce  a  greater  number  of  young  at  a  birth. 

The  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  the  hippopotamus, 
the  camel,  and  the  dromedary,  produce  but  one  at  a 
birth ;  the  cow,  the  red-deer,  the  sheep,  the  llama,  the 
mare,  and  the  ass,  produce  one  or  occasionally  two; 
the  goat,  the  roe-deer,  and  the  chamois,  produce  two 
or  three;  the  cat,  the  fox,  the  jackal,  the  tiger,  the 
lion,  and  the  bear,  produce  from  two  to  six ;  the  dog 
and  the  wolf,  from  five  to  ten ;  the  wild-boar,  from 
four  to  ten ;  and  the  domestic  sow,  from  eight  to  sev- 
enteen ;  while  the  smaller  rodents  have  produced  as 
many  as  nineteen  young  at  a  birth. 

The  larger  animals,  as  the  great  pachyderms,  the 
solipeds,  and  the  ruminants,  breed  but  once  a  year; 
while  the  smaller  mammals  breed  two  or  three  times 
in  a  year.1 

Among  mammals,  swine,  and  a  few  domesticated 
varieties,  present  almost  the  only  exceptions  to  the 
prevailing  inverse  relation  of  size  to  fecundity.  The 
larger  birds  are  less  prolific  than  the  smaller  species, 
while  among  the  most  minute  members  of  the  ani- 
mal kingdom  the  most  astonishing  fecundity  is  ob- 
served. 

In  the  cases  of  diminished  fecundity  from  over- 
feeding, or  from  an  abnormal  activity  of  the  nutritive 
functions,  a  plethoric  condition  of  the  system  is  pro- 
duced that  may,  in  itself,  impair  the  vigor  of  the  re- 
productive powers,  or  lead  to  the  development  of  local 

1  Colin,  "Physiologic  comparee,"  tome  ii.,  p.  531 ;  Spencer's  "Prin- 
ciples of  Biology,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  435,  436;  "Animals  and  Plants  under 
Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  139. 


116  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

congestion  and  inflammation  that  interfere  with  the 
activity  of  the  function. 

In  quite  a  number  of  cases  of  barrenness,  in  highly- 
fed  and  plethoric  animals,  that  have  come  under  my 
observation,  the  defect  was  clearly  attributable  to  an 
extreme  irritability  of  the  organs  of  generation,  result- 
ing from  congestion  or  local  inflammation. 

In  some  of  these  cases  congestion  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  vagina  and  mouth  of  the  uterus  was 
the  only  abnormal  peculiarity  that  could  be  detected, 
while  in  others  there  was  congestion  of  the  ovaries,  or 
deposits  of  tuberculous  matter  involving  a  large  pro- 
portion of  their  tissues. 

In  this  connection,  we  should  not  overlook  the  fact 
that  the  highly-artificial  conditions  to  which  animals 
are  subjected,  to  secure  the  development  of  special 
characters,  render  the  system  exceedingly  sensitive  to 
the  influence  of  the  acknowledged  causes  of  the  scrofu- 
lous habit. 

Even  when  the  unsymmetrical  development  of  the 
organization  does  not  proceed  far  enough  to  produce 
an  unhealthy  condition  of  any  of  the  reproductive 
organs,  it  may  constitute  a  predisposing  tendency  to 
disease  that  is  liable  to  be  made  active  by  slight  ex- 
citing causes. 

A  long  series  of  derangements  of  the  organs  of 
generation,  of  every  grade  of  intensity,  may  thus  arise, 
directly  or  indirectly,  through  the  influence  of  the  de- 
fective equilibrium  of  the  system,  produced  by  pam- 
pering and  over-feeding. 

If  the  procreative  functions  are  impaired  by  a 
plethoric  condition  of  the  system,  without  complica- 


FECUNDITY.  117 

tions  from  local  disease,  the  defect  may  be  corrected  in 
many  instances  by  active  exercise,  low  diet,  or  deple- 
tion ;  but  when  the  local  derangements  of  the  system 
are  the  result  of  disease  it  will  be  difficult  to  restore 
the  normal  activity  of  the  function,  even  under  the 
most  skillful  treatment. 

A  remarkable  development  of  the  tendency  to  lay 
on  fat  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  delicacy  of  consti- 
tution, a  diminished  secretion  of  milk,  and  a  loss  of 
fecundity. 

It  is  a  popular  notion  that  very  fat  animals  are  not 
likely  to  be  good  breeders,  and  when,  even  in  flocks 
and  herds  that  are  not  highly  bred,  a  marked  ten- 
dency to  lay  on  fat  is  observed  in  precocious  females, 
their  ability  to  breed  is  often  called  in  question.  The 
general  prevalence  of  such  opinions  seems  to  indicate 
that  experience  has  shown  that  the  excessive  produc- 
tion of  fat  is  incompatible  with  a  high  development 
of  the  reproductive  powers ;  and  it  is  for  this  reason 
that  objections  are  made  to  what  is  called  "  show  con- 
dition "  in  breeding  stock. 

Prof.  Tanner,  one  of  the  best  authorities  on  this 
subject,  says  :  "  The  non-impregnation  of  the  female 
may  generally  be  traced  to  an  excessive  fatness  in  one 
or  both  of  the  animals,  and  an  absence  of  constitu- 
tional vigor.  The  breeding  powers  are  most  energetic 
when  the  animals  are  in  moderate  condition,  uninflu- 
enced either  by  extreme  fatness  or  leanness."  J 

The  antagonism  of  the  reproductive  functions  and 
the  "  fatty  diathesis  "  is  shown  in  the  fact,  well  known 
to  feeders,  that  the  removal  of  the  ovaries  of  the  fe- 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society ',  1865,  p.  265. 


118  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

male,  or  of  the  testicles  of  the  male,  gives  an  increased 
tendency  to  fatten. 

The  influence  of  an  excessive  deposition  of  fat  in 
the  tissues  upon  the  general  health  and  activity  of  the 
system  is  thus  referred  to  by  Dr.  Cragie,  in  his  paper 
on  "  Adipose  Tissue : " 

"  In  persons  of  this  description,  who,  it  is  matter 
of  common  observation,  are  generally  not  only  pleth- 
oric but  bloated,  and  liable  to  imperfect  circulation, 
and  disorders  of  the  circulation  and  secretions  gener- 
ally, and  in  whom  very  slight  causes  often  induce 
serious  disorders,  the  adipose  tissue  appears  to  lose  a 
great  proportion  of  the  small  degree  of  vital  energy 
which  it  possesses ;  and  the  more  abundant  its  secreted 
product  is,  the  less  active  are  its  vessels  and  the  in- 
herent properties  of  the  membrane. 

"  In  consequence  of  this  greatly-impaired  energy, 
slight  causes,  as  cold,  injury,  punctures,  etc.,  produce 
suddenly  a  complete  loss  of  circulation  and  action  in 
the  tissues — for  it  is  not  increased  but  diminished 
action — and  this  impaired  energy  continues  until  the 
natural  function  of  the  tissue  becomes  extinct."  As 
to  the  formation  of  fat,  he  adds:  "In  females  and 
eunuchs  it  is  more  abundant  than  in  males;  in  fe- 
males deprived  of  the  ovaries  it  is  more  abundant 
than  in  those  possessed  of  those  organs,  and  it  is  well 
known  that  sterility  is  frequent  among  the  corpulent 
of  both  sexes."  l 

In  many  instances  the  integrity  of  important  or- 
gans is  impaired  by  deposits  of  fat,  or  by  the  actual 
transformation  of  their  substance  into  fatty  tissue, 

1  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  i.,  p.  62. 


FECUNDITY.  119 

which  is  known  to  medical  men  as  "  fatty  degenera- 
tion." Dr.  Carpenter  says :  "  There  is  one  remark- 
able form  of  degeneration,  however,  which  is  common 
to  nearly  all  tissues,  and  which  seems  to  occur,  as  a 
normal  alteration,  in  many  of  them  at  an  advanced 
period  of  life ;  this  consists  in  the  conversion  of  their 
albuminous  or  gelatinous  materials  into  fat,  thus  con- 
stituting what  is  known  as  fatty  degeneration.  That 
this  change  is  not  due  to  the  removal  of  the  normal 
components  of  the  tissues,  and  the  substitution  of 
newly-deposited  fatty  matter  in  their  place,  but  is  (in 
most  cases  at  least)  the  result  of  a  real  conversion  of 
the  one  class  of  substance  into  the  other,  has  been 
already  pointed  out;"  and  he  further  remarks  that 
"  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  i  fatty  degeneration,' 
the  form  under  which  degeneration  most  commonly 
presents  itself,  is  in  reality  far  more  frequent  than 
simple  wasting  of  the  tissues ;  but  it  attracts  less  no- 
tice because  their  bulk  is  little  or  not  at  all  diminished, 
and  it  is  only  when  their  function  becomes  impaired 
that  attention  is  seriously  drawn  to  the  change." 1 

Dr.  Flint,  one  of  the  best  authorities  on  the  sub- 
ject of  physiology,  says  fat  "  does  not  take  part  in  the 
nutrition  of  the  parts  that  are  endowed,  to  an  eminent 
degree,  with  the  so-called  vital  functions ;  and,  when 
these  tissues  are  brought  to  the  highest  point  of  func- 
tional development,  the  fat  is  entirely  removed  from 
their  substance.  Long  disuse  of  any  part  will  produce 
such  changes  in  its  power  of  appropriating  nitrogen- 
ized  material  for  its  regeneration  that  it  soon  becomes 
atrophied  and  altered.  Instead  of  the  normal  nitro- 

1  "  Human  Physiology,"  pp.  563,  559. 


120  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

genized  elements  of  the  tissue,  we  have,  under  these 
circumstances,  a  deposition  of  fatty  matter.  The  fat 
is  here  inert,  and  takes  the  place  of  the  substance  that 
gives  to  the  part  its  characteristic  function.  These 
phenomena  are  strikingly  apparent  in  muscles  that 
have  been  long  disused  or  paralyzed,  or  in  nerves  that 
have  lost  their  functional  activity.  If  the  change  be 
not  too  extensive  the  fat  may  be  made  to  disappear, 
and  the  part  will  return  to  its  normal  constitution  by 
appropriate  exercise  ;  but  frequently  the  alteration 
has  proceeded  so  far  as  to  be  irremediable  and  per- 
manent." * 

The  reproductive  organs  of  very  fat  animals  are 
frequently  affected  with  fatty  degeneration,  to  an  ex- 
tent that  impairs  or  entirely  destroys  their  functional 
activity. 

In  a  valuable  paper  on  "  The  Reproductive  Pow- 
ers of  Animals,"  Prof.  Tanner  says :  "  For  the  pur- 
pose of  more  fully  investigating  the  causes  of  barren- 
ness, I  have  examined  the  ovaries  of  several  heifers 
which  were,  after  a  very  careful  trial,  condemned  and 
killed  as  barreners,  and  I  have  every  reason  to  believe 
that  by  far  the  larger  proportion  were  naturally  quite 
competent  for  breeding,  and  that,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  non-impregnation  arose  from  the  seminal  fluid 
never  reaching  the  ovum,  which  was  ready  for  fertili- 
zation, or  from  that  fluid  not  being  of  a  healthy  char- 
acter. 

"  In  some  cases  in  which  the  ova  were,  to  all  ap- 
pearances, perfectly  healthy,  the  tubes — whereby  the 
seminal  fluid  should  have  been  conveyed— were  so 

1  Flint's  "Physiology  of  Man "— " Nutrition,"  p.  381. 


FECUNDITY.  121 

overcharged  with  fatty  matter  that  impregnation  was 
rendered  impossible. 

"  In  other  cases  the  ovaries  were  in  an  unhealthy 
condition,  either  one  or  both  having,  to  a  great  extent, 
wasted  away.  Sometimes  one  of  the  ovaries  had  been 
suffering  from  atrophy,  and  the  other  in  such  an  irri- 
table and  sensitive  condition  that  it  might  be  almost 
described  as  inflamed,  and  under  such  circumstances 
the  formation  of  a  healthy  ovum  could  be  scarcely  ex- 
pected. In  other  instances  the  ovaries  had  become 
considerably  enlarged,  in  consequence  of  a  fatty  de- 
generation of  these  organs  having  taken  place." ' 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  condition  of  these 
animals,  in  regard  to  fattening  tendency  and  constitu- 
tional peculiarities,  is  not  given  in  the  above  cases,  as 
it  would  aid  us  in  determining  the  cause  of  the  ob- 
served pathological  conditions.  Of  the  cases  of  bar- 
ren females  that  I  have  had  an  opportunity  to  investi- 
gate, the  defect  was  attributable,  in  about  equal  pro- 
portions, to  fatty  degeneration  of  the  ovaries,  scrofu- 
lous tumors  of  the  ovaries,  and  congestion  and  chronic 
inflammation  of  the  uterus  and  its  appendages — all  of 
which  were  apparently  the  result  of  an  excessive  de- 
velopment of  the  tendency  to  fatten. 

When  the  fatty  degeneration,  or  the  scrofulous 
tumors,  were  confined  to  one  ovary,  its  fellow  was 
usually  the  seat  of  congestion  or  chronic  inflammation, 
and  thus  unfitted  to  develop  a  healthy  ovum. 

From  the  correlated  relations  of  the  functions  of 
nutrition  and  reproduction,  it  will  be  seen  that  great 
activity  of  the  fat-producing  functions,  even  when  not 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  1865,  p.  266. 


122  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

accompanied  by  local  disease,  will  involve  a  corre- 
sponding decrease  in  the  activity  of  the  reproductive 
powers. 

From  the  antagonistic  conditions  presented  in  the 
law  of  correlation,  it  will  perhaps  be  impossible  to 
secure  the  highest  type  of  perfection  in  the  produc- 
tion of  fat  without  impairing,  to  some  extent  at  least, 
the  functions  of  the  reproductive  organs. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  apparent  incompati- 
bility of  the  fat  and  the  milk  producing  functions,  and 
we  find  also  that  a  diminished  secretion  of  milk  is 
often  observed  in  animals  that  are  not  prolific,  while 
the  best  breeders  are  usually  good  milkers.  Prof. 
Tanner,  in  his  paper  which  we  have  already  noticed, 
says :  "  The  formation  of  milk  is  intimately  connected 
with  the  reproductive  powers.  The  secretion  of  milk 
is  dependent  upon  the  activity  of  the  mammary 
glands,  and  these  are  either  under  the  direct  influence 
of  the  breeding-organs,  or  else  they  sympathize  very 
closely  with  them.  Those  animals  which  breed  with 
the  least  difficulty  yield  the  best  supplies  of  milk,  and 
produce  the  most  healthy  and  vigorous  offspring. 

"  Now,  it  must  be  admitted  that,  however  much 
we  have  improved  the  symmetry  and  feeding  power 
of  stock,  we  have  suffered  them  to  deteriorate  in  value 
as  breeding  animals,  by  the  decrease  of  their  milking 
capabilities.  In  proportion  as  we  adopt  a  more  natu- 
ral system  of  management,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
stock  in  a  healthy  and  vigorous  breeding  condition,  so 
shall  we  reap  the  indirect  benefit  of  a  better  supply  of 
milk.  It  is  true  that  a  deficiency  in  the  yield  of  milk 
may  be  met  by  other  resources,  but,  since  a  short  sup- 


FECUNDITY.  123 

ply  of  milk  is  indicative  of,  and  associated  with,  en- 
feebled breeding  powers,  every  care  should  be  taken 
to  obviate  this  defect."  * 

In  the  human  family,  as  the  physical  organization, 
in  structure  and  function,  does  not  essentially  differ 
from  that  of  the  lower  animals,  the  same  causes  of 
impaired  fertility  will  be  operative,  if  the  habits  and 
conditions  of  life  do  not  present  a  wide  departure 
from  those  that  prevail  in  a  state  of  nature. 

With  an  advance  in  civilization,  however,  when 
the  mental  faculties  attain  a  high  degree  of  develop- 
ment, and  the  physical  activity  of  the  system  is  inten- 
sified through  the  action  of  the  nervous  system,  a  new 
element  of  variation  is  introduced,  that  disturbs  the 
equilibrium  of  the  system  and  increases  the  activity 
of  the  various  causes  that  interfere  with  the  procrea- 
tive  functions. 

In  a  work  published  nearly  one  hundred  years  ago, 
Dr.  Black  remarked  that  "  high  refinement  is  an  ob- 
stacle to  propagation."  In  a  paper  read  before  the 
Statistical  Society,  in  1843,  Sir  John  Boileau  says: 
"  It  is  a  fact  that  rich  families,  taken  in  general,  are 
those  which  have  the  fewest  children  ;  and  their  ranks 
would  become  thinner,  generation  after  generation,  if 
they  were  not  gradually  recruited  by  new  families  of 
recently-acquired  wealth. 

"  The  effect  which  riches  have  in  restraining  the 
fecundity  of  marriages  is  nowhere  more  apparent  than 
in  Paris.  The  most  opulent  families  of  France  con- 
gregate there,  and,  as  they  select  certain  quarters  of 
the  town  for  their  residence,  the  facts  brought  out  in 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  1865,  p.  270. 


124  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

them  are  more  remarkable  and  complete  than  any- 
where. 

"  Now,  by  the  investigations  made  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Comte  de  Chabrol,  the  average  of  births 
to  a  marriage  is,  in  the  different  arrondissements,  in 
regular  inverse  proportion  to  the  easy  or  opulent  cir- 
cumstances of  the  population.  In  the  first  four  ar- 
rondissements united,  which  are  those  where  the  most 
opulent  families  reside,  the  number  of  children  to  a 
marriage  is  only  1.97 ;  that  of  the  four  poorest  arron- 
dissements, on  the  contrary,  is  2.86;  and  the  differ- 
ence between  the  two  arrondissements  placed  at  the 
extremities  of  the  scale  is  as  1.87  to  3.23,  or  more 
than  73  per  cent. 

"  These  facts  deserve  the  more  attention  because,  in 
spite  of  the  reasons  which  determine  the  inhabitants 
of  Paris  to  choose  peculiar  localities,  according  to  their 
respective  circumstances,  some  poor  families  will  be 
found  in  the  quarters  inhabited  by  the  rich,  and  some 
rich  families  in  the  quarters  occupied  by  the  poor ; 
which  fact  necessarily  diminishes  the  difference  we 
should  establish  if  it  were  possible  to  separate  com- 
pletely the  different  classes  of  the  population.  We 
arrive  at  this  important  consideration  that,  if  the 
second,  third,  tenth,  and  first  arrondissements,  where 
the  richest  families  in  Paris  reside,  were  not  continu- 
ally recruited  from  families  freshly  acquiring  wealth, 
the  actual  number  of  inhabitants  would  not  be  main- 
tained. Not  only  the  children  born  there  are  less 
numerous  than  their  parents,  but,  as  we  must  deduct 
those  who  die  in  infancy,  or  who  never  marry — and 
that  we  must  estimate  these  at  least  at  a  quarter  of 


FECUNDITY.  125 

the  whole,  in  a  town  where  thirteen  children  out  of 
twenty-nine  do  not  live  to  twenty-one  —  it  follows 
that  in  three  generations,  or  the  space  of  a  century, 
the  population  would  be  reduced  to  half  its  num- 
ber." 

Mr.  G.  R.  Porter,  in  his  "  Progress  of  the  Nation," 
says,  "  Frequently,  and  indeed  almost  always,  in  old- 
settled  countries,  the  proportionate  number  of  births 
decreases  with  the  advance  of  civilization  and  the 
more  general  diffusion  of  the  conveniences  and  luxu- 
ries of  life."  * 

Other  writers  speak  of  the  generally  acknowledged 
influence  of  the  plethoric  condition  of  the  system  that 
prevails  among  the  wealthy,  in  producing  diminished 
fecundity.  It  does  not,  however,  follow  from  the 
facts  stated  that  privation  and  want  are  favorable  to 
fertility,  as  the  reverse  is  true.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  famines  not  only  diminish  population  by  an 
increased  death-rate,  but  also  by  a  diminution  of  the 
birth-rate.3 

In  the  absence  of  those  special  conditions  that  an- 
tagonize the  procreative  functions,  the  greatest  fecun- 
dity may  be  expected  when  the  food-supply  is  suffi- 
cient for  the  wants  of  the  system,  and  active  habits  of 
life  conduce  to  a  healthy  performance  of  the  various 
organic  functions. 

There  are  facts  that  seem  to  show  that  an  improved 
condition  of  the  system,  resulting  from  a  better  food- 
supply  after  a  period  of  privation  and  even  of  disease, 

1  The  last  three  quotations  have  been  copied  from  Walford's  "  In- 
surance Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  iii.,  pp.  185,  190. 

2  Walford,  "  Insurance  Cyclopedia,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  163. 


126  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

may  produce  an  unusual  activity  of  the  functions  of 
reproduction. 

The  unusually  rapid  increase  of  population,  after 
a  country  has  been  scourged  by  a  famine  or  pestilence, 
has  often  been  remarked. 

After  the  plague  of  1348  in  England,  the  "  flocks 
and  herds  wandered  about  at  will,  without  herdsmen, 
shepherd,  or  owner,"  and  labor  was  so  scarce  that 
landlords  were  glad  to  have  their  lands  cultivated  by 
their  tenants  without  payment  of  rent.  Population, 
however,  speedily  righted  itself.  "  We  are  told  that 
after  the  plague  double  and  triple  births  were  fre- 
quent, that  most  marriages  were  fertile,  and  that  no 
serious  effects  were  produced,  in  a  short  time,  on  the 
numbers  of  the  people." 1 

In  examining  the  various  causes  of  impaired  fe- 
cundity, we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  influence  of 
the  transmission  of  ancestral  tendencies  and  peculi- 
arities. 

If  the  ancestors  of  an  animal  are  not  prolific,  it 
will  inherit  a  bias  of  the  organization  that  is  favorable 
to  the  action  of  the  various  causes  of  sterility  and  bar- 
renness ;  that  is,  the  natural  tendency  or  predisposi- 
tion of  the  organization  will,  as  it  were,  add  to  the 
intensity  of  the  forces  that  interfere  with  the  normal 
performance  of  the  function  of  reproduction,  and  thus 
aid  in  its  suppression. 

The  production  of  twins  will  be  found  to  depend, 
not  only  upon  the  supply  of  food,  as  already  noticed, 
but  on  peculiarities  of  the  system  that  have  been  in- 
herited. 

1  Rogers,  "  History  of  Agriculture  and  Prices,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  299-301. 


FECUNDITY.  127 

"  Osiander *  relates  the  case  of  a  woman  who,  in 
eleven  accouckeinents,  had  given  birth  to  thirty-two 
children,  was  herself  born  with  three  other  twins,  and 
her  mother  had  had  thirty-eight  children ;  another 
woman,  delivered  of  five  children  at  a  birth,  had  a 
sister  who  was  delivered  of  three ;  and  lately  at 
Rouen,  twin  sisters  gave  birth  to  twins  on  the  same 
day.2  Mr.  J.  Lewis  Brittain 3  related  last  year,  at  the 
Edinburgh  Obstetrical  Society,  the  case  of  a  woman 
who  had  twins  eleven  times,  and  whose  mother  had 
had  twins  twice ;  and  the  report  states  'that  '  several 
of  the  members  mentioned  that  they  knew  of  some 
analogous  cases.' " 

"  Dr.  Mitchell,  in  a  paper  on  <  Plural  Births  in  Con- 
nection with  Idiocy,'  *  cites  the  following  cases :  The 
mother  of  an  idiot,  twin-born,  bore  twins  twice,  the 
maternal  grandmother  once,  one  maternal  aunt  twice, 
another  once,  and  a  sister  once ;  in  a  second  case  the 
mother  was  herself  one  of  twins,  and  she  bore  twins 
once,  and,  in  a  third  case  of  a  twin-born  idiot,  the 
aunt  had  borne  twins ;  while  among  the  cases  in  which 
the  idiot  was  not  twin-born,  in  one  the  mother  and 
the  maternal  grandmother  each  bore  twins  twice ;  in 
a  second  case  the  mother  and  the  maternal  grand- 
mother each  bore  twins  once,  and  a  maternal  aunt 
twice ;  in  a  third  case  the  mother  and  three  maternal 
aunts  each  bore  twins  once ;  in  a  fourth  case  the 
mother  bore  twins  once,  and  a  maternal  aunt  bore 

1  "Handbucb  der  Entbindungskunst,"  Band  i.,  pp.  316,  317. 
8  British  Medical  Journal,  November  30,  1861,  p.  598. 

3  Edinburgh  Medical  Journal,  1862,  p.  468. 

4  Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  1862,  p.  513. 


128  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCR-BKEEDING. 

twins  four  times  running ;  and  in  a  fifth  case  the 
mother  and  two  sisters  of  the  idiot  each  bore  twins 
once. 

"  It  is  also  well  known  that  the  hereditary  produc- 
tion of  twins  in  sheep  is  encouraged  by  saving  the 
ewe-lambs  that  are  twins.1  Notwithstanding  these 
facts,  there  are  some  cases  which  show  that  twins  oc- 
casionally owe  their  descent  as  such  to  the  male  line, 
of  which  the  following  case  affords  a  good  illustra- 
tion :  Two  brothers  (twins)  both  had  twins  by  their 
wives  many  times  in  succession ;  the  wife  of  one  of 
them  having  died,  the  second  wife  produced,  like  the 
first,  twins ; 3  and,  in  the  case  recorded  by  Mr.  Stocks,8 
of  Salford,  twin  brothers  also  produced  twins  ;  one  of 
them  having  a  family  of  ten  children,  eight  daughters 
and  two  sons,  all  of  whom  were  twin-born ;  and  the 
other  a  family  of  eleven  children,  of  whom  eight  were 
twin  born ;  it  is,  moreover,  to  be  noticed  that  in  this 
last  case,  while  five  of  the  female  twins  in  the  suc- 
ceeding generation  produced  twins  at  their  first  birth, 
the  three  children  of  the  only  one  of  the  male  twins 
of  whom  any  account  is  given,  were  all  born  singly, 
leading  us  to  infer  that  the  hereditary  predisposition 
to  twins  was  probably  derived  from  a  female  ances- 
tor, and  that  each  of  the  twin  brothers  referred  to,  in 
addition  to  being  the  medium  of  transmission,  also 
shared  in  the  inheritance. 

"  In  connection  also  with  the  influence  of  sex  in  the 

1  "Notes  on  Fields  and  Cattle,"  by  Ptev.  W.  H.  Beever,  1862,  p. 
144. 

9  "  Nouvelle  Dictionnaire  d'Histoire  Naturelle,"  tome  xii.,  p.  5*>6. 
8  Lancet,  July  20,  1861,  p.  78. 


FECUNDITY.  129 

production  of  twins,  it  is  necessary  to  notice  the  popu- 
lar error  respecting  the  alleged  barrenness  of  females 
who  have  themselves  been  born  as  twins  with  male 
children,  for  it  is  still  customary  among  nurses  and 
midwives,  in  some  places,  to  talk  somewhat  disrespect- 
fully of  such  females,  as  disqualified  for  the  marriage 
state,  in  consequence  of  their  supposed  inability  to 
have  children. 

"  This  error,  wrhich  probably  arose  from  the  well- 
established  fact  of  the  barrenness  of  the  free-martin 
(the  imperfect  cow-calf  twin  with  a 'bull-calf),  was  re- 
futed by  Mr.  Cribb,  in  a  paper  published  in  1823,1 
which  contains  six  cases  of  such  females  becoming 
mothers. 

"  Dr.  Sieveking  has  informed  me  of  a  case  in  which 
a  woman,  twin  with  a  male,  subsequently  gave  birth 
to  twins ;  and  any  remaining  doubt  on  the  subject  is 
removed  by  the  fact  that  such  females  have  on  some 
occasions  become  even  more  than  usually  prolific,  as 
in  the  case  which  occurred  near  Maidenhead,2  of  quad- 
ruplets, consisting  of  three  boys  and  one  girl,  who 
were  all  reared,  and  the  only  female  in  this  quartet 
subsequently  became  the  mother  of  triplets,  consisting 
of  two  boys  and  one  girl." 3 

The  following  remarkable  case  would  need  to  be 
well  authenticated  to  entitle  it  to  credence  :  "  The 


1  London  Medical  Repository,  1823,  pp.  213-216. 

3  Ibid.,  1827,  p.  350. 

3  In  the  above  quotation  from  Mr.  Sedgwick's  paper,  British  and 
Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1863,  pp.  170, 171,  the  origi- 
nal sources  from  which  the  cases  were  compiled  are  cited  in  the  foot- 
notes. 


130  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal  stated  that  on 
the  21st  of  August,  1872,  Mrs.  Timothy  Bradler,  of 
Trumbull  County,  Ohio,  gave  birth  to  eight  children 
— three  boys  and  five  girls.  They  were  all  living  and 
healthy,  but  quite  small.  She  was  married  six  years 
previously,  and  weighed  two  hundred  and  seventy-three 
pounds  on  the  day  of  her  marriage.  She  has  given 
birth  to  two  pairs  of  twins,  and  now  eight  more,  making 
twelve  children  in  six  years.  Mrs.  Bradler  was  one 
of  a  triplet,  her  mother  and  her  father  being  twins,  and 
her  grandmother  the  mother  of  five  pairs  of  twins."  ] 

"  In  a  remarkable  instance  which  occurred  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  the  mother  had  twelve  children 
within  four  years  after  her  second  marriage,  at  four 
births,  there  having  been  twins  at  the  first,  triplets  at 
the  second  and  third,  and  quadruplets  at  the  fourth. 
The  first  (twin)  birth  occurred  at  the  age  of  thirty- 
five  ;  she  had  previously  given  birth  to  seven  children, 
one  only  at  a  time." a 

"  A  still  more  remarkable  case  occurred  in  Mercer 
County,  Pennsylvania,  in  1816,  ten  children  having 
been  born  within  twelve  months,  five  at  each  of  two 
births.  The  mother  died  about  a  year  after  the  second 
birth,  but  meantime  gave  birth  to  twins;  or  twelve 
children  in  twenty  months.  She  was  thirty-seven 
years  old  at  her  death."  8 

1  British  Medical  Journal,  November,  1872,  as  quoted  in  Walford's 
"  Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  Hi.,  article  "  Fecundity,"  p.  200,  where  a 
large  number  of  cases  of  multiple  births  are  recorded,  including  twen- 
ty-five cases  of  triplets,  thirteen  of  quartets,  three  of  quintets,  and  one 
each  of  six,  eight,  and  ten,  at  a  birth. 

8  Dr.  E.  R.  Peaslee,  Johnson's  "  Universal  Cyclopaedia,"  article 
"Gestation."  '  Ibid.,  loc.  cit. 


FECUNDITY.  131 

"  An  instance  is  mentioned  in  the  Bulletin  des  Sci- 
ences of  a  cow  belonging  to  a  French  agriculturist, 
which  produced  nine  calves  at  three  successive  births, 
namely,  four  at  the  first,  three  at  the  second,  and  two 
at  the  third ;  all  of  which,  except  two  of  the  first  birth, 
grew  up  and  were  nursed  by  the  mother ;  but  the  heif- 
ers afterward  produced  each  only  a  single  calf." 1 

According  to  Culley,  the  Teeswater  ewes  "  gener- 
ally bring  two  lambs  each,  and  sometimes  three ;  there 
are  instances  of  even  four  or  five,  as  was  the  case  with 
Mr.  Edward  Eddison's  ewe,  which,  wiien  two  years 
old,  in  1772,  brought  him  four  lambs ;  in  1773,  five ; 
in  1774,  two ;  in  1775,  five ;  in  1776,  two ;  and  in 
1777,  two.  The  first  nine  lambs  were  lambed  within 
eleven  months." a 

A  ewe  belonging  to  James  "Wilkie,  Esq.,  of  the 
county  of  Berwigk,  Scotland,  "  produced  eleven  lambs 
in  the  course  of  three  immediately  succeeding  seasons. 
In  the  spring  of  1803,  she  had  four  lambs;  in  1804, 
three ;  and  again  four  in  1806.  She  was  of  the  or- 
dinary breed  of  the  lower  part  of  the  country."  * 

Mr.  Kerr  remarks  in  regard  to  these  sheep  that 
"  ill-fed  ewes  hardly  ever  have  twins,  while  those  that 
are  in  good  condition,  when  put  to  the  ram,  very  often 
have  twins,  and  sometimes  triplets." 

"  In  1806,  in  a  flock  of  Norfolk  ewes  belonging  to 
Mr.  "Wythe,  of  Eye,  one  on  the  18th  of  February  yeaned 
three  lambs ;  on  the  20th  another  dropped  three,  and 
a  third,  five,  on  the  21st ;  a  fourth,  four,  on  the  23d ; 

1  "  British  Husbandry,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  438,  note. 

2  Culley  on  "  Live-Stock,"  p.  123. 

3  Kerr's  "  Agricultural  Survey  of  Berwickshire,"  p.  403. 


132  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

and  on  the  same  day  a  fifth  produced  three.  On  the 
25th  a  sixth  ewe  dropped  three  lambs ;  and  a  seventh 
yielded  four  on  the  27th.  So  that  seven  ewes  yeaned 
twenty-five  lambs,  all  of  which  were  reared."  1 

"  Last  week  a  ewe,  belonging  to  Mr.  Kitter,  yeaned 
five  lambs ;  she  also  brought  five  lambs  last  year,  and 
four  the  year  before ;  i.  e.,  fourteen  lambs  in  three 
years,  and  not  a  weak  or  deformed  one  in  the  whole 
number."  a 

"Mr.  Meadows,  of  Salcey  Forest,  Northampton- 
shire, has  a  ewe  which  brought  him  three  lambs  in 
1802,  four  in  1803,  four  in  1804,  and  four  in  1805 ; 
being  fifteen  lambs  in  four  years."  3 

Some  breeds  of  sheep,  as  the  Mendip  and  Dor- 
sets,  mentioned  by  Youatt,  breed  twice  a  year,  and  he 
gives  the  following  instance  in  another  breed :  "  In 
the  spring  of  1801,  Mr.  Sheriff,  of  Kinmyles,  Inver- 
ness, bought  a  parcel  of  ewes  in  lamb,  of  the  white- 
faced  Highland  breed.  They  lambed  in  March  and 
April.  One  old  ewe,  without  a  tooth,  dropped  a 
second  lamb  on  the  1st  of  November,  1801,  a  third 
on  the  29th  of  April,  1802,  and  a  fourth  on  the  12th 
of  January,  1803 ;  so  that  she  reared  four  lambs  at 
different  times  in  the  course  of  twenty-one  months."  ' 

Rev.  Gilbert  White  gives  an  account  of  a  half- 
bred  "  Bantam "  sow  that  was  remarkable  for  her 

1  "Annual  Register,"  1806;  quoted  in  Youatt  on  "  Sheep,"  p.  609. 

2  Gentleman's  Magazine,  March,  1750 ;  quoted  in  Youatt  on  "  Sheep," 
p.  509. 

3  Agricultural  Magazine,  April,  1804 ;  quoted  in  Youatt  on  "Sheep," 
p.  509. 

4  Agricultural  Magazine,  February,  1803;  quoted  in  Youatt  on 
"  Sheep,"  p.  509. 


FECUNDITY.  133 

fecundity  and  longevity :  "  For  about  ten  years  this 
prolific  mother  produced  two  litters  in  the  year,  of 
about  ten  at  a  time,  and  once  above  twenty  at  a  litter ; 
but  as  there  were  near  double  the  number  of  pigs  to 
that  of  teats,  many  died.  ...  At  the  age  of  about 
fifteen,  her  litters  began  to  be  reduced  to  four  or  five, 
and  such  a  litter  she  exhibited  when  in  her  fatting- 
pen.  ...  At  a  moderate  computation,  she  was  al- 
lowed to  have  been  the  fruitful  parent  of  three  hun- 
dred pigs — a  prodigious  instance  of  fecundity  in  so 
large  a  quadruped.  She  was  killed  in  the  spring  of 
1775,  when  seventeen  years  old."  * 

A  remarkable  instance  of  multiple  births  is  re- 
ported in  the  Prairie  Farmer,  on  the  authority  of 
the  London  Live-Stock  Journal,  as  follows :  "In  the 
neighborhood  of  Hohenmath,  Bavaria,  a  cow  has  re- 
cently been  delivered  of  five  calves  at  a  birth.  All 
of  them  were  born  dead,  and  the  mother  succumbed 
a  few  days  later.  The  calves  weighed  sixteen,  seven- 
teen, eighteen,  nineteen,  and  twenty  pounds,  respec- 
tively, and  were  all  of  the  same  color."  a 

Dr.  Simpson  states  that  he  has  obtained  authentic 
information  in  regard  to  forty-two  married  women 
who  were  "  born  as  twins  with  males,"  and  thirty-six 
of  the  number  had  children.  "  Two  of  the  females 
who  have  families  were  each  born  as  a  triplet  with 
two  males."  8 

1  "Natural  History  of  Selborne,"  p.  222.     "The  Hog,"  by  Youatt, 
p.  154. 

2  Prairie  Farmer,  December  8,  1877,  p.  389.     These  cases  are, 
perhaps,  not  all  attributable  to  heredity.    For  additional  cases  of  in? 
herited  fecundity,  see  p.  16. 

8  *«  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  i.,  p.  736. 


134:       -        PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Among  cattle,  where  twin  calves  are  produced, 
the  one  a  male  and  the  other  a  female,  the  latter, 
called  a  free-martin,  is,  as  a  rule,  barren.  When  the 
twins  are  of  the  same  sex,  the  reproductive  powers 
are  not  impaired. 

In  all  other  varieties  of  animals,  so  far  as  known, 
when  males  and  females  are  born  together  as  twins, 
the  females  are  as  prolific  as  if  born  singly.  In  free- 
martins  the  internal  generative  organs  are  generally 
imperfect,  partaking  of  the  characters  of  both  male 
and  female  organs.  In  appearance  these  imperfect 
females  frequently  resemble  steers,  the  feminine  char- 
acteristics being  mostly  wanting.1 

In  rare  instances  the  free-martin  is  capable  of 
breeding,  the  reproductive  organs  not  having  become 
malformed  from  her  intra-uterine  development  with  a 
male. 

Youatt,  in  his  work  on  "  Cattle,"  gives  but  two 
cases  of  fertile  free-martins.  Dr.  Hunter  dissected  a 
free-martin  calf,  that  died  when  a  month  old,  and 
found  the  sexual  organs  naturally  constituted,  and  he 
also  heard  of  two  instances  in  Scotland  of  free-martins 
that  were  prolific. 

Dr.  Maulson  has  likewise  published  similar  cases 
in  London's  Magazine  of  Natural  History? 

A  few  additional  cases  might  be  gathered  from 
the  agricultural  papers,  but  they  only  serve  to  show 
that  fertility  under  such  conditions  is  decidedly  ex- 
ceptional. 

1  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  701,  702, 
735,  736.     Youatt  on  "  Cattle,"  p.  638. 

8  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  735. 


FECUNDITY.  135 

Dr.  Simpson,  in  his  valuable  paper,  from  which 
we  have  already  quoted,  says :  "As  to  the  cause  of 
the  malformation  and  consequent  infecundity  of  the 
organs  of  generation  in  the  free-martin  cow,  we  will 
not  venture  to  offer  any  conjecture  in  explanation  of 
it. 

"  It  appears  to  be  one  of  the  strangest  facts  in  the 
whole  range  of  teratological  science,  that  the  twin 
existence  in  utero  of  a  male  along  with  a  female 
should  entail  upon  the  latter  so  great  a  degree  of 
malformation  in  its  sexual  organs,  and  in  its  sexual 
organs  only.  The  circumstance  becomes  only  the 
more  inexplicable  when  we  consider  this  physiologi- 
cal law  to  be  confined  principally,  or  entirely,  to  the 
cow,  and  certainly  not  to  hold  with  regard  to  sheep, 
or  perhaps  any  other  animal.  The  curiosity  of  the 
fact  also  becomes  heightened  and  increased  when  we 
recollect  that  when  the  cow  or  any  other  uniparous 
animal  has  twins,  both  of  the  same  sex,  as  two  males 
or  two  females,  these  animals  are  always  both  perfect- 
ly formed  in  their  sexual  organization,  and  both  ca- 
pable of  propagating.  In  the  course  of  making  the 
preceding  inquiries  after  females  born  co-twins  with 
males  in  the  human  subject,  we  have  had  a  very  great 
number  of  cases  of  purely  female  and  purely  male 
twins  mentioned  to  us,  who  had  grown  up  and  be- 
come married ;  and  in  only  two  or  three  instances,  at 
most,  have  we  heard  of  an  unproductive  marriage 
among  such  persons.  Further,  we  may  in  conclusion 
remark  that,  among  the  long  list  of  individual  cases 
of  hermaphroditism  in  the  human  subject  that  we 
have  had  occasion  to  cite,  we  find  only  one  instance 


136  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

in  which  the  malformed  being  is  stated  to  have  been 
a  twin.  Katsky,  however,  Nargele,  and  Saviard,  have 
each,  as  before  stated,  mentioned  a  case  in  which  both 
twins  were  hermaphroditically  formed  in  their  sexual 
organs."  1 

It  is  worthy  of  mention,  in  this  connection,  that 
some  authors  assert  that  the  production  of  twins  in 
the  human  species  is  an  abnormal  peculiarity,  and 
they  claim  that  a  larger  proportion  of  idiots  and  im- 
beciles are  twin-born  than  of  those  not  thus  affected, 
that  the  relatives  of  imbeciles  and  idiots  frequently 
have  twins,  and  that,  in  families  where  twins  are  fre- 
quently produced,  bodily  deformities  are  repeatedly 
observed.9 

Dr.  Duncan,  in  his  work  on  "  Fecundity,  Fertility, 
and  Sterility,"  is  inclined  to  the  belief  that  the  pro- 
duction of  twins  in  the  human  family  is  not  only 
abnormal,  but  that  it  cannot  be  relied  upon  as  an  indi- 
cation of  great  fecundity,  as  twins  are  usually  pro- 
duced at  longer  intervals  than  single  births,  and  that 
in  the  latter  the  entire  period  of  child-bearing  is  like- 
ly to  be  more  extended. 

1  Loc.  dt.,  p.  736. 

a  See  Dr.  Arthur  Mitchell's  paper  in  the  Medical  Times  and  Gazette, 
November  15,  1862,  referred  to  in  Walford's  "Insurance  Cyclopedia," 
vol.  iii.,  p.  192. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

IN-AND-IN    BREEDING. 

THE  term  in-and-in  breeding  is  generally  used  to 
indicate  the  breeding  together  of  animals  that  are 
closely  related. 

As  to  the  degree  of  relationship,  in  the  breeding 
of  animals,  to  which  this  term  should  be  applied,  it 
not  only  appears  that  no  definite  rule  has  been  estab- 
lished, but  that  almost  every  writer  uses  it  with  a  dif- 
ferent shade  of  meaning. 

The  prevailing  differences  of  opinion  in  regard  to 
the  effects  of  in-and-in  breeding  have,  to  some  extent 
at  least,  arisen  from  this  diversity  of  meaning  in  the 
use  of  the  term,  and  a  misapprehension  as  to  the  real 
advantages  that  are  aimed  at  in  its  practice.1 

1  In-and-in  breeding  has  been  denned  as  follows :  "  The  breeding 
from  close  affinities  "— Youatt  on  "  Cattle,"  p.  525.  "  The  breeding 
from  close  relations" — Johnson's  "Farmers'  Cyclopaedia,"  p.  248. 
"  Breeding  between  relatives  without  reference  to  the  degree  of  con- 
sanguinity"— Randall's  "Practical  Shepherd,"  p.  116.  "It  should 
only  be  applied  to  animals  of  precisely  the  same  blood  as  own  brother 
and  sister " — Bowly,  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol. 
xix.,  p.  149.  "  Breeding  from  the  same  family,  or  putting  animals  of 
the  nearest  relationship  together  " — Sinclair's  "  Code  of  Agriculture," 
p.  93.  "  The  pairing  of  relations  within  the  degree  of  second  cousins, 
twice  or  more  in  succession  " — Stonehenge  on  "  The  Horse,"  p.  140. 


138  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Sir  John  Sebright,  whose  successful  practice  gives 
the  weight  of  authority  to  his  opinions  on  this  subject, 
is  often  quoted  as  an  opponent  of  in-and-in  breeding. 
He  evidently,  however,  limits  the  application  of  the 
term  to  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  closest  rela- 
tionship in  parents.  He  says :  "  Mr.  Meynel's  fox- 
hounds are  likewise  quoted  as  an  instance  of  the 
success  of  this  practice ;  but,  upon  speaking  to  that 
gentleman  upon  the  subject,  I  found  that  he  did  not 
attach  the  meaning  that  I  do  to  the  term  in-and-in. 
He  said  that  he  frequently  bred  from  the  father  and 
the  daughter,  and  the  mother  and  son.  That  is  not 
what  I  consider  as  breeding  in-and-in,  for  the  daugh- 
ter is  only  half  of  the  same  blood  as  the  father,  and 
will  probably  partake,  in  a  great  degree,  of  the  prop- 
erties of  the  mother. 

"Mr.  Meynel  sometimes  bred  from  brother  and 
sister ;  this,  certainly,  is  what  may  be  called  a  little 
close  ;  but  should  they  loth  le  very  good,  and  partic- 
ularly should  the  same  defects  not  predominate  in 
both,  but  the  perfections  of  the  one  promise  to  cor- 
rect in  the  produce  the  imperfections  of  the  other,  1 
do  not  think  it  objectionable :  much  further  than  this, 
the  system  of  breeding  from  the  same  family  cannot, 
in  my  opinion,  be  pursued  with  safety." 

'  He  then  proceeds  to  point  out  the  difficulties  that 
arise,  in  the  practice  of  what  he  calls  in-and-in  breed- 
ing, from  the  rare  instances  in  which  breeding-ani- 
mals are  found  to  be  free  from  defects. 

If  the  terms  inbreeding,  close  breeding,  and  in- 
terbreeding, are  used  to  indicate  the  breeding  to- 

1  "  The  Art  of  improving  the  Breed  of  Domestic  Animals,"  pp.  8,  9. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  139 

getlier  of  closely -related  animals  in  a  single  in- 
stance, or  at  long-separated  intervals,  the  term  in- 
and-in  breeding  could  then  be  used  with  greater  ex- 
actness to  indicate  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  pro- 
cess. 

High  breeding  implies  a  careful  selection  of  breed- 
ing-animals within  the  limits  of  a  family,  with  refer- 
ence to  a  particular  type,  and  regardless  of  relation- 
ships. High-bred  animals  are  not  necessarily  in-and- 
in  bred,  although,  from  the  system  of  selection  prac- 
tised, they  must  be  closely  bred  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent. 

The  opponents  of  in-and-in  breeding  claim  that  it 
produces  a  delicacy  of  constitution — a  predisposition 
to  disease,  and  a  lack  of  fecundity — and  they  often 
fall  into  the  error  of  assuming  that  all  who  do  not 
admit  the  truth  of  these  claims  are  in  favor  of  close 
breeding  as  a  rule  of  practice. 

For  the  purpose  of  gaining  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  involved  in  the  breeding  together  of  ani- 
mals that  are  closely  related,  we  will  first  examine 
the  practice  of  those  who  have  gained  a  high  repu- 
tation as  breeders  of  domestic  animals,  and  then 
consider  the  objections  to  their  methods  of  improve- 
ment. 

From  the  time  of  Bakewell,  the  breeders  who 
have  gained  the  greatest  reputation  have  evidently 
aimed  to  establish  in  their  flocks  and  herds  certain 
well-marked  characters  that  adapted  the  animal  to  a 
particular  purpose. 

In  giving  expression  to  their  ideal  type,  or  stand- 
ard of  excellence,  fhey  found  it  necessary  to  limit 


140  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

their  selection  of  breeding-stock  to  the  animals  that 
had  the  characters  they  wished  to  perpetuate.  As  it 
was  only  among  the  animals  descended  from  a  com- 
mon ancestry — with  the  same  hereditary  tendencies — 
that  the  desired  variations  were  found,  they  were 
frequently  compelled  to  breed  together  animals  that 
were  more  or  less  closely  related. 

Their  selections  were  made  to  secure  in  both 
parents  the  same  general  characteristics  that  they 
wished  to  obtain  in  their  offspring,  and  the  close  re- 
lationships observed  in  their  breeding-stock  were  but 
the  necessary  incidents  of  their  practice. 

Close  breeding  with  them  was  but  a  means  of  im- 
provement, and  not  an  end  that  was  thought  to  be 
desirable  in  itself. 

The  true  method  of  improvement  practised  by 
these  eminent  breeders  is  frequently  misunderstood, 
and  their  intentions  have,  consequently,  been  misrep- 
resented. A  friend  of  mine,  on  his  return  from 
England,  told  me  that  he  had  learned  an  important 
secret  in  breeding  that  he  believed  to  be  a  prevail- 
ing rule  among  the  best  breeders.  It  was  this: 
"Breed  from  half  brother  and  sister;"  and  an  ex- 
amination of  a  large  number  of  the  most  celebrated 
pedigrees  apparently  made  the  theory  a  plausible 
one. 

An  incidental  feature  in  the  methodical  improve- 
ment of  animals  had,  however,  been  mistaken  for  the 
real  causes  of  improvement,  which  were  entirely  over- 
looked. 

Animals  are  not  improved  by  breeding  except  in 
the  increased  stability  gained  in  dominant  characters, 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING. 

and  the  certainty  with  which  they  are  transmitted,  as 
the  offspring,  at  the  time  of  birth,  can  only  be  pos- 
sessed of  the  characters  they  have  derived  from  their 
ancestors.  The  true  means  of  improvement  have 
already  been  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  variation, 
and  we  must  look  upon  methods  of  breeding  solely 
with  reference  to  the  perpetuation  of  characters  thus 
obtained. 

ISTo  matter  what  opinions  we  may  form  as  to  the 
advantages  or  disadvantages  of  close  breeding,  the  fact 
remains  the  same  :f  that  all  the  great  breeders  have 
practised  it  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and,  as  far  as 
we  are  able  to  judge,  with  the  same  purpose) — that  of 
retaining  and  fixing  in  their  flocks  and  herds  certain 
desirable  characters  that  have  been  developed  by  mod- 
ified conditions. 

The  extent  to  which  in-and-in  breeding  has  been 
practised  by  the  breeders  who  have  attained  the  great- 
est celebrity  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagrams.1 

The  pedigrees  in  a  number  of  the  diagrams  are 
arranged  on  a  new  plan;  the  name  of  each  animal 
being  given  but  once,  while  the  lines  are  drawn  so 
that  the  relationships  can  be  readily  traced. 

The  pedigrees  are  selected  to  represent  the  most 
popular  families  of  the  leading  breeds,  as  indicating 

1  Some  of  these  diagrams  were  prepared  to  illustrate  a  lecture  on 
"  In-and-in  Breeding,"  delivered  by  the  author  before  the  "American  As- 
sociation of  Breeders  of  Short-Horns,"  at  their  meeting  in  Cincinnati, 
December  3,  1873,  and  published  in  their  Transactions.  The  lecture 
and  diagram  were  also  published  in  the  "  Report  of  the  Michigan  State 
Board  of  Agriculture  for  1872."  The  illustrations  have  been  made  use 
of  in  this  chapter,  but  the  matter  has  been  entirely  rewritten  arid  ar- 
ranged to  conform  to  the  classification  of  topics  in  this  work. 


142 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  143 

the  uniformity  of  the  practice  in  the  improvement  of 
all  classes  of  animals. 

In  all  of  the  cases  cited,  the  breeders  evidently  in- 
tended to  breed  together  animals  of  the  same  qualities^ 
regardless  of  relationship. 

In  Diagram  1,  the  pedigree  of  Duke  of  Airdrie 
may  be  traced,  beginning  with  the  six  animals  at  the 
extreme  left  of  the  diagram. 

In  Diagram  2,  the  pedigrees  of  these  same  six  ani- 
mals, arranged  in  a  different  order,  may  be  traced  back 
to  Favorite  by  black  lines,  while  the  dotted  lines  if 
continued  would  run  to  Hubback. 

Certain  animals  in  Diagram  1  are  arranged  in  a 
different  order,  and  taken  for  the  basis  of  Diagram  3, 
which  gives  the  pedigrees  of  some  of  the  "  New  York 
Mills  "herd. 

Diagram  8  gives  the  pedigree  of  a  number  of  ani- 
mals bred  by  Charles  and  Robert  Colling. 

In  all  of  the  diagrams,  the  two  lines  coming  to- 
gether at  the  left  of  a  name  trace  respectively  to  the 
sire  and  dam,  while  the  lines  from  the  right  of  the 
name  run  to  the  offspring. 

The  Booths  practised  close  breeding  to  a  great 
extent,  as  will  be  seen  from  an  examination  of  the 
pedigree  of  their  most  noted  animals.  The  pedi- 
gree of  the  sisters  Queen  of  the  May,  Queen  Mab, 
Queen  of  the  Yale,  and  Queen  of  the  Ocean ;  and 
their  brother,  Lord  of  the  Valley  (14837),  bred  by 
R.  Booth,  of  Warlaby,  is  given  in  Diagram  4,  on 
page  147. 

According  to  the  calculations  of  Rev.  J.  Stone,  of 
Hellidon,  "Crown  Prince  is  1055  times  descended 


144 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING. 


145 


146  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

from  Favorite,  and  Bed  Kose  by  Harbinger,  1344 
times.  So  the  produce  of  the  two  are  descended  from 
him  2399  times."  * 

Lord  of  the  Valley  and  his  sisters  are  three  six- 
teenths of  the  blood  of  Pilot,  although  he  had  not 
been  used  for  five  generations. 

They  are  also  five-sixteenths  of  the  blood  of  Buck- 
ingham. 

Lord  of  the  Isles  (18267)  is  an  example  of  still 
closer  breeding ;  he  was  got  by  Sir  Samuel  out  of  Red 
Rose,  by  Harbinger.  Sir  Samuel  was  got  by  Crown 
Prince  out  of  Charity,  the  dam  of  Crown  Prince.  Ac- 
cording to  the  same  authority,  the  out-crosses  made  use 
of  by  Mr.  Booth  had  a  strong  infusion  of  the  blood 
of  Favorite,  Mussulman  having  sixty-four  crosses, 
Lord  Lieutenant  one  hundred  and  six  crosses,  and 
Matchem  fifty-two  crosses  of  this  favorite  progenitor 
of  the  improved  Short-Horns. 

Diagram  Y  shows  the  extent  to  which  in-and-in 
breeding  has  been  practised  with  the  Herefords. 

Mr.  Price,  the  celebrated  breeder  of  Herefords, 
says :  "  I  bought  from  Mr.  ^ompkins  a  considerable 
number  of  his  cows  and  heifers,  and  two  more  bulls. 
I  have  kept  the  blood  of  these  cattle  unadulterated 
for  forty  years,  and  Mr.  Tompkins  assured  me  that  he 
had  bred  the  whole  of  his  stoclT from  two  heifers  and 
a  bull,  selected  by  himself  early  in  life,  without  any 
cross  of  blood.  *•  *  it 

"  My  herd  of  cattle  has,  therefore,  biNi  bred  m^" 
and-in,  as  it  is  termed,  for  upward  of  eighty  years, 
and  by  far  the  greater  part  of  it  in  a  direct  line,  on 

1  Carr's  "  History,"  p.  40. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING. 


i! 


cr    - 


148  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

both  sides,  from  one  cow  now  in  calf  for  the  twentieth 
time.  I  have  bred  three  calves  from  her,  by  two  of 
her  sons,  one  of  which  is  now  the  largest  cow  I  have, 
possessing  also  the  best  form  and  constitution;  the 
other  two  were  bulls,  and  proved  of  great  value,  thus 
showing  indisputably  that  it  is  not  requisite  to  mix 
the  blood  of  the  different  kinds  of  the  same  race  of 
animals,  in  order  to  keep  them  from  degenerating."  l 
The  following  pedigree  of  Mr.  Fowler's  celebrated 
bull  Shakespeare,  which  includes  that  of  Mr.  Bake- 
well's  noted  bulls  Twopenny  and  D,  will  show  the 
extent  to  which  in-and-in  breeding  was  practised  by 
those  who  were  most  successful  in  improving  the 
Long-Horn  breed : 

( Westmoreland  Bull 

{Twopenny  •< 
I  Old  Comely 
A  Canley  Cow 

(  Westmoreland  Bull 
f  Twopenny  •< 
Dam  of  D  |  Old  Comely 

Shakespeare  2 -{  (.Old  Comely 

(  Westmoreland  Bull 
("Twopenny  •< 

.Daughter  of  Twopenny]  «  OId  Comely 

1 A  Canley  Cow 

Mr.  Quartly,  the  great  improver  of  the  Devons, 
bred  his  animals  very  closely. 

The  name  of  his  bull,  Prince  of  Wales  (105),  a 
celebrated  prize-winner,  is  repeatedly  found  in  the 
pedigrees  of  the  best-bred  Devons  of  the  present  day. 
His  pedigree,  which  is  as  follows,  shows  that  half 

1  Farmer's  Magazine,  1841,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  50. 

2  Marshall's  "  Midland  Counties,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  320-322 ;  Youatt  on 
'  Cattle,"  pp.  192,  193  ;  Low's  "  Domestic  Animals,"  p.  376. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING. 

brother  and  sister  were  bred  together  twice  in  succes- 
sion: 

I  Sillifant  (120) 

(Hundred  Guinea  (56)  4 
Curley  (92) 
;  •  •  •  - 
(  Sillifant  (120) 
^U,_WOT   ,  Splendid  (415) 

Wales  (105) 

Hundred  Guinea  (56) 
Duchess  (146) 


The  high-bred  cow,  Eveleen  5th  (466),  belonging 
to  the  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College,  is  a  reg- 
ular breeder,  a  good  milker,  and  remarkable  for  her 
feeding  qualities  and  sound  constitution. 

Her  dam  traces  to  Forester  thirty  times,  to  Sillifant 
ten  times,  to  Hundred  Guinea  seven  times,  and  to  Quart- 
ly's  Prince  of  Wales  three  times,  in  eight  generations. 

Her  sire,  within  the  same  limits,  traces  to  Forester 
twenty-one  times,  to  Sillifant  twenty  times,  to  Hun- 
dred Guinea  thirteen  times,  and  to  Quartly's  Prince 
of  Wales  five  times. 

/'In-and-in  breeding  has  not  been  practised  to  the 
same  extent  with  horses  as  with  other  farm -stock, 
yet  many  of  the  most  noted  horses  on  record  have 
been  bred  from  close  relationships. * 

Stonehenge  says :  "  When  any  new  breed  of  ani- 
mals is  first  introduced  into  this  country,  in-and-in 
breeding  can  scarcely  be  avoided ;  and  hence,  when 
first  the  value  of  the  Arab  was  generally  recognized, 
the  breeder  of  the  race-horse  of  those  days  could  not 
well  avoid  having  recourse  to  the  plan.  Thus  we 
find,  in  the  early  pages  of  the  stud-book,  constant  in- 
stances of  very  close  breeding,  often  carried  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  become  incestuous."  And  he  adds, 


150  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

"  The  evidence  of  success  in  resorting  to  the  practice 
of  in-breeding  is  too  strong  to  be  gainsaid."  l 

The  pedigree  of  Goldsmith's  Maid,  the  "  queen  of 
the  American  turf,"  is  given  in  Diagram  5,  as  an  illus- 
tration of  a  well-bred  trotter,  as  it  includes  several 
other  noted  pedigrees. 

Sheep-breeders  have  quite  generally  practised  in- 
and-in  breeding  with  the  best  results. 

The  merino  sheep,  bred  by  the  late  Edwin  Ham- 
mond, present  a  remarkable  example  of  close  breed- 
ing. "  They  were  bred  in-and-in  by  Colonel  Hum- 
phreys up  to  the  period  of  Mr.  Atwood's  purchase ; 
Mr.  Atwood  bred  his  entire  flock  from  one  ewe,  and 
never  used  any  but  pure  Humphreys  rams ;  Mr.  Ham- 
mond has  preserved  the  same  blood  entirely  intact, 
and  thus,  after  being  drawn  beyond  all  doubt  from  an 
unmixed  Spanish  Cabana,  they  have  been  bred  in-and- 
in,  in  the  United  States,  for  upward  of  sixty  years."  a 

The  pedigree  of  the  ram  Gold  Drop,  for  which 
Mr.  Hammond  refused  twenty-five  thousand  dollars, 
is  given  in  Diagram  6,  in  convenient  form  for  study. 
Dividing  the  "  blood"  of  Gold  Drop  into  512  parts,  it 
would  be  made  up  as  follows : 

Parts. 

Of  Old  Black.            ....  196 

"  first  choice  of  old  ewes           .            .  ,     151 

"     "        "      "    "    ewe-lambs       .        .   ;  109 

"  dam  of  light-colored  ewe       .            «  .       28 

"  Old  Matchless       .            .          ...          -  .  .,          28 

Total    .  .-          .  .  .  .512 

1  Stonehenge  on  the  "Horse,"  pp.  140,  141.     See  also  "British 
Rural  Sports,"  pp.  422-425,  286. 

2  Randall's  "Practical  Shepherd,"  p.  120. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING. 


151 


152 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  153 

Old  Greasy  also  represents  188  parts  of  blood 
in  512,  and  Wooster  represents  138  parts  in  512. 
Sweepstakes  is  T\  of  the  "  blood "  of  Old  Greasy, 
and  |f  of  the  "  blood  "  of  Wooster. 

It  will  be  seen  that  ten  lines  of  descent  may  be 
traced  from  Old  Greasy  to  Gold  Drop,  and  fourteen 
lines  of  descent  may  be  traced  from  Wooster  to  Gold 
Drop. 

The  Rich  family  of  merino  sheep  furnish  another 
example  of  successful  close  breeding. 

Mr.  Randall  says  they  "  were  first  crossed  in 
1842.  They  were  then  preeminently  hardy.  No  one 
claims  that  they  have  gained  either  in  hardiness  or 
size  by  the  cross ;  yet  for  thirty  years  preceding  that 
period  they  had  been  bred  strictly  in-and-in,  to  say 
nothing  of  their  previous  in-and-in  breeding  in 
Spain."  l 

"  The  Messrs.  Brown  during  fifty  years  have 
never  infused  fresh  blood  into  their  excellent  flock 
of  Leicesters. 

"  Since  1810  Mr.  Barford  has  acted  on  the  same 
principle  with  the  Foscote  flock. 

F  He  asserts  that  half  a  century  of  experience  has 
convinced  him  that  when  two  nearly-related  animals 
are  quite  sound  in  constitution,  in-and-in  breeding 
does  not  induce  degeneracy,  but  he  adds  that  he 
1  does  not  pride  himself  on  breeding  from  the  nearest 
affinities.' " a 

From  the  examples  that  have  thus  far  been  pre- 

1  Randall's  "Practical  Shepherd,"  p.  119. 

2  Darwin's  "Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p. 
149. 


154:  PRINCIPLES   OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

sented,  it  appears  that  in-and-in  breeding  has  been 
quite  generally  practised  by  those  who  have  been  the 
most  successful  in  improving  the  different  breeds,  and 
it  is  probable,  to  say  the  least,  that  they  have  all  made 
use  of  it  with  a  common  purpose. 

(  If  those  having  the  greatest  reputation  in  the  art 
had  resorted  to  the  practice  of  in-and-in  breeding,  on 
account  of  the  direct  influence  it  was  in  itself  sup- 
posed to  exert  in  the  improvement  of  animals,  they 
would  undoubtedly  have  made  use  of  it  to  a  greater 
extent  than  they  have  done.) 

From  a  careful  examination  of  the  pedigrees  we 
have  quoted,  or  any  others  that  may  be  found  in  the 
herd-books  and  breeding-registers,  representing  the 
practice  of  breeders  of  acknowledged  reputation,  it 
will  be  found  that  in-and-in  breeding  has  only  been 
resorted  to  in  the  case  of  some  favorite  animal  or  ani- 
mals that  were  superior  in  certain  respects  to  the 
average  members  of  the  herd  or  family  which  they 
represent,  and  the  object  has  evidently  been  to  se- 
cure, in  their  offspring,  a  predominance  of  their  most 
highly-valued  characters. 

From  the  complex  relations  of  the  multitude  of 
hereditary  characters  in  animals,  which  have  been 
derived,  as  we  have  seen,  from  all  of  their  ancestors, 
the  modifying  influences  of  food  and  habit  cannot 
affect  all  animals  in  precisely  the  same  degree  or 
manner,  and  they  cannot,  therefore,  be  expected  to 
produce  the  same  modifications  in  the  characters  of 
a  large  number  of  animals  at  the  same  time.  The 
breeder  who  makes  an  intelligent  use  of  these  modi- 
fying agencies,  in  the  improvement  of  his  stock,  will 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  155 

rarely  find  more  than  one  or  two  animals  presenting 
variations  that  approximate  closely  to  the  ideal  stand- 
ard of  excellence  he  has  adopted ;  and,  moreover,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  the  same  desired  form  of  vari- 
ation will  be  more  likely  to  be  obtained  in  those  ani- 
mals that  have  the  closest  resemblance  in  their  hered- 
itary tendencies  and  constitution.  The  truth  of  this 
proposition  is  amply  proved  by  experience,  as  we  find 
that  the  desirable  variations  that  have  laid  the  foun- 
dation for  the  improvement  of  breeds,  have,  as  a  rule, 
occurred  in  a  few  favored  animals,  belonging  to  the 
same  family,  and  closely  related  in  blood. 

Distinct  breeds  of  animals  have  originated,  as  we 
have  seen,  through  the  influence  of  the  conditions  to 
which  they  were  subjected  in  particular  localities,  in 
connection  with  a  continued  selection  of  those  that  in 
their  form  and  qualities  resemble  each  other,  while 
those  presenting  diverging  characters  were  rejected. 

In  the  improved  breeds  we  have  ingrafted  upon 
the  original  type  the  highly-artificial  characters  that 
render  the  animal  valuable  for  a  special  purpose,  and 
these,  from  their  very  nature,  are  more  difficult  to 
retain  than  the  less  divergent  characters  of  the  origi- 
nal breed. 

These  artificial  characters  can  only  be  secured,  in 
their  greatest  perfection,  by  persistent  effort  in  the 
systematic  accumulation  of  slight  variations  in  the 
desired  direction,  and  they  can  only  be  made  the 
dominant  characters  of  a  family  or  breed  by  breeding 
exclusively  from  those  animals  in  which  they  are  the 
most  conspicuous. 

If,  as  may  reasonably  be  expected,  these  characters 


156  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

make  their  appearance  in  a  single  family,  or  in  a  few 
individuals  that  are  closely  related,  in-and-in  breeding 
must  necessarily  be  resorted  to  to  secure  their  perpe- 
tuity. From  these  considerations  it  must  be  obvious 
that,  in  the  improvement  of  a  breed,  in-and-in  breed- 
ing tends  to  produce  uniformity  in  the  characteristics 
of  a  family  by  fixing  desirable  variations  and  making 
them  dominant. 

From  the  uniformity  thus  obtained  in  the  heredi- 
tary tendencies  of  the  organization — the  dominant 
characters  of  all  the  immediate  ancestors  being  the 
same — the  power  of  hereditary  transmission  is  like- 
wise increased,  as  observed  in  what  is  now  called  pre- 
potency. If  the  hereditary  transmission  of  desirable 
variations  were  not  intensified  by  the  process  of  in- 
breeding, or  otherwise,  they  would  unavoidably  be- 
come latent  by  the  preponderance  of  the  more  stable 
characters  of  the  original  type.1 

1  The  difficulty  of  fixing  a  particular  variation  that  presents  a 
marked  divergence  from  the  normal  condition  of  an  animal,  may  be 
illustrated  as  follows :  If  we  suppose  the  hereditary  tendencies  of  the 
animal  to  be  represented  by  one  hundred  and  the  desired  variation  by 
one,  the  chances  of  its  being  perpetuated  by  the  animal  when  bred 
with  another,  that  had  not  an  equal  susceptibility  to  variation  in  the 
same  direction,  would  be  only  one  in  one  hundred  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions ;  but  when  there  is  a  tendency  to  the  dominance 
of  other  characters,  the  chances  of  its  repetition  will  be  less.  Or,  if 
among  one  thousand  animals  of  a  given  breed  there  are  but  two  that 
present  a  slight  variation  of  a  particular  character,  the  chances  of  its 
being  preserved,  if  the  animals  in  which  it  occurs  are  not  bred  to- 
gether, would  evidently  be  but  two  in  one  thousand,  even  in  case  the 
variation  was  not  more  difficult  to  preserve  than  the  ordinary  char- 
acters, while  in  the  case  of  a  variation  of  a  highly-artificial  character 
that  would  be  likely  to  be  obscured  by  more  stable  characters,  the 
chances  of  its  preservation  would  be  materially  diminished. 


BREEDING.  157 

Such  characters,  if  not  inbred,  might  be  inherited, 
and  make  their  appearance  at  intervals,  as  in  the  case 
of  what  are  called  accidental  characters,  which  are 
not  likely  to  be  transmitted  in  a  dominant  form,  but 
they  would  not  beAne  family  characteristics. 

In  the  breedin|^f  animals,  the  parent  that  ap- 
parently exercises  i^  greatest  influence  upon  the 
dominant  characters  of  the  offspring  is  said  to  be 
prepotent. 

When  certain  desirable  characters  have  been  de- 
veloped, in  a  few  individuals,  they  can  only  be  in- 
grafted upon  the  entire  flock,  or  herd,  by  making 
them  the  dominant  characters  of  the  males  that  are 
to  be  used,  and  securing  in  them  prepotency  in  their 
transmission. 

As  the  male  practically  represents  one-half  of  the 
breeding  flock  or  herd,  prepotency  in  the  transmission 
of  his  better  qualities  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  char- 
acteristics he  can  possess. 

In  the  cases  of  marked  prepotency,  in  which  the 
ancestral  history  of  the  animals  can  be  traced,  in-and- 
in  breeding  has  been  so  generally  practised  that  we 
cannot  avoid  the  conclusion  that  the  one  is  dependent 
upon  the  other. 

If  the  male  is  more  highly-bred  than  the  females 
with  which  he  is  coupled,  a  greater  uniformity  in  the 
offspring  will  be  obtained  through  the  predominance 
of  his  characteristics. 

The  great  demand  for  high-bred  males,  by  the  best 
breeders  of  all  classes  of  stock,  is  the  cause  of  the  pre- 
vailing high  prices  of  animals  belonging  to  the  most 
fashionable  families. 


158  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

The  importance  of  securing  prepotency  in  the  male 
parent  has  apparently  been  recognized  by  all  the  great 
breeders,  as  we  find,  as  a  rule,  that  their  breeding-males 
have  been  selected  from  sub-families  that  are  more 
highly  inbred  than  the  average  of  their  stock.  In 
many  cases  the  practice  of  in-and-in  breeding  has  been 
limited  to  certain  families  that  were  set  apart  for 
breeding-sires,  and  this  on  many  accounts  would  un- 
doubtedly be  the  best  method. 

Mr.  Hammond's  "  Queen  "  family,  from  which  he 
selected  his  rams,  were  bred  in-and-in  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent than  the  rest  of  his  flock.  Jonas  Webb  kept  five 
separate  flocks,  the  rams  used  by  himself  being  drawn 
from  his  favorite  family;  the  "Duchess"  tribe  was 
the  source  of  the  sires  of  Mr.  Bates's  herd,  and  Mr. 
Booth  had  his  favorite  families,  from  which  the  sires 
of  his  own  herd  are  descended. 

The  degree  of  high  breeding  required  to  secure 
prepotency  in  a  given  male  will  evidently  depend  upon 
the  relative  development  and  breeding  of  the  females 
with  which  he  is  coupled ;  the  better  the  females,  and 
the  greater  the  uniformity  in  their  characteristics,  the 
more  intense  must  be  the  power  of  transmission  in  the 
male  to  secure  a  predominance  of  his  peculiarities  in 
his  offspring,  and  this  intensity  in  the  power  of  trans- 
mission can  only  be  produced  by  still  higher  breeding. 

The  supposed  cases  of  spontaneous  prepotency 
and  accidental  variation  cannot  reasonably  be  claimed 
to  constitute  exceptions  to  the  generally  acknowledged 
laws  that  determine  variations  and  regulate  their  trans- 
mission, as  they  are  readily  explained  when  all  of  the 
facts  relating  to  them  can  be  ascertained. 


IN-AND-IN  BKEEDING.  159 

As  an  illustration  of  this  class  of  cases,  attention  is 
called  to  the  family  history  of  Mr.  Fowler's  Long-Horn 
bull  Shakespeare,  which  is  often  quoted  as  an  example 
of  spontaneity.  His  pedigree,  as  given  on  page  148, 
shows  him  to  have  been  deeply  in-and-in  bred  from 
animals  of  acknowledged  merit.  Mr.  Marshall  says  : 
"  This  bull  is  a  striking  specimen  of  what  naturalists 
term  accidental  varieties. 

"  Though  bred  in  the  manner  that  has  been  men- 
tioned, he  scarcely  inherits  a  single  point  of  the  Long- 
Horned  breed,  his  horns  excepted."  1 

Then  follows  a  description  of  the  animal  that  shows 
him  to  have  been  somewhat  better,  in  general  form, 
than  the  ordinary  Long-Horns  of  his  day.2 

Mr.  Marshall  also  says,  Mr.  Fowler's  "  cows  have 
long  been  considered  of  the  first  quality — of  the  best 
Canley  blood — and  his  bull  Shakespeare,  already  men- 
tioned, has  raised  them  to  a  degree  of  perfection, 
which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  first  judges,  the  breed  of 
cattle  under  notice  never  before  attained."  J 

1  "  Rural  Economy  of  the  Midland  Counties,"  vol.  i.,  p.  322. 

2  Loc.  fit.,  p.  322. 

3  A  careful  comparison  of  Mr.  Marshall's  description  of  the  bul 
Shakespeare  "with  his  "  general  description "  of  "  the  higher  class  of 
individuals  "  of  the  Long-Horn  breed,  in  the  herds  of  Messrs.  Fowler, 
Bakewell,  an<i  Princep,  will  show  that  aside  from  a  deeper  chest,  shorter 
legs,  and  a  peculiarity  in  the  setting  on  of  the  tail,  Shakespeare  did  not 
differ  essentially  from  the  best  type  of  the  breed  to  which  he  belonged- 

In  his  "  general  description  "  of  the  breed,  Mr.  Marshall  says,  "  The 
tail  set  on  variously,  even  in  individuals  of  the  highest  repute."  So 
that  the  peculiarities  in  the  tail  of  Shakespeare  cannot  be  considered  as 
exceptional  in  a  breed  in  which  variety  in  the  character  was  the  rule. 

Compare  Marshall,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  323-325,  with  pp.  327-331 ;  and 
Youatt  on  "Cattle,"  pp.  193-197. 


160  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

The  Canley  stock,  which  was  the  foundation  of 
Mr.  Fowler's  herd,  as  well  as  Mr.  Bakewell's,  was 
obtained  of  Mr.  "Webster,  of  Canley,  "the  leading 
breeder  of  the  midland  counties." 

Of  this  stock  Mr.  Marshall  says :  "  I  have,  indeed, 
heard  it  said,  by  a  man  who  has  himself  been  a  breeder 
of  some  eminence,  that  Mr.  "Webster  had  the  best 
stock,  especially  of  beance  (cattle),  that  ever  were,  or 
(he  believed)  ever  will  be  bred  in  the  kingdom ; "  and 
he  adds  in  a  note, "  Another  eminent  breeder,  on  whose 
judgment  I  can  better  rely,  is  of  opinion  that,  in  beauty 
or  utility  of  form,  they  have  received  little,  if  any, 
improvement  since  Mr.  Webster's  day."  * 

Old  Comely  (the  dam  of  Twopenny)  was  killed 
at  the  age  of  twenty-six  years,  and  "  the  fat  on  her 
sirloin  was  four  inches  in  thickness."  a 

The  bull  Twopenny  was  a  celebrated  animal,  and 
the  bull  D,  Mr.  Marshall  says,  was  "a  fine  animal, 
and  a  striking  proof  of  the  vulgar  error  that  breeding 
in-and-in  weakens  the  breed.  ...  At  the  age  of  twelve 
or  thirteen  years  (he)  is  more  active  and  higher-met- 
tled than  bulls  in  general  are  at  three  or  four  years 
old."  s 

From  what  is  known  of  the  ancestors  of  the  bull 
Shakespeare,  his  superior  qualities  could  not  have 
been  accidental ;  and,  as  the  progeny  that  he  left 
were  unmistakably  Long-Horns  of  the  most  approved 
type,  he  must  have  transmitted  the  characters  he  in- 
herited from  his  ancestors. 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  319. 

a  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  84. 

3  Loc.  tit.,  p.  321. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  161 

If  he  presented  any  characters  that  were  not  to  be 
reconciled  with  the  improved  type  of  his  breed — as 
in  the  fancied  resemblance  to  "  a  Holderriess  or  Tees- 
water  bull " — it  would  certainly  be  more  reasonable 
to  refer  them  to  the  atavic  transmission  of  some  re- 
mote cross  than  to  accidental  variation. 

In  attempts  to  ingraft  a  new  or  modified  char- 
acter upon  those  representing  a  family  type,  without 
destroying  the  specific  characters  of  the  family,  close 
breeding  within  the  limits  of  the  family  must  be  prac- 
tised to  prevent  too  wide  a  divergence  in  the  domi- 
nant characters. 

Diagram  6  may  be  studied  with  profit,  as  it  shows 
the  skillful  manner  in  which  the  blood  of  the  light- 
colored  ewe  was  infused  into  the  flock  of  Mr.  Ham- 
mond, to  tone  down  the  tendency  to  the  production 
of  excessive  yolk  without  destroying  the  other  desir- 
able qualities  of  the  descendants  of  old  Black,  and  the 
first  choice  of  old  ewes  and  first  choice  of  ewe-lambs. 

From  this  general  examination  of  (the  practice  of 
in-and-in  breeding  by  the  most  celebrated  breeders,  it 
appears  that  they  have  made  use  of  it  to  secure  uni- 
formity in  their  breeding-stock,  to  fix  the  slight  vari- 
ations that  they  sought  in  the  process  of  improvement 
and  blend  them  with  the  best  original  characters,  and 
to  secure  the  important  quality  of  prepotency  in  the 
males  that  they  made  use  of  to  "  improve  "  the  aver- 
age characters  of  their  stock. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  a  consideration  of  the 
alleged  ^influence  of  in-and-in  breeding  in  producing 
delicacy  of  constitution,  lack  of  fecundity,  and  a  ten- 
dency to  disease  and  abnormal  peculiarities.  It  is, 


162  PRINCirLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

without  question,  too  often  the  case,  that  high-bred 
animals  have  one  or  more  of  the  defects  in  question, 
to  an  extent  that  seriously  impair  their  value  for  any 
useful  purpose ;  and  it  is  undoubtedly  the  interest  of 
the  breeder  to  ascertain  the  true  causes  of  their  prev- 
alence, and  the  best  methods  of  counteracting  them. 

If  an  imaginary  cause  is  mistaken  for  the  real 
one,  the  breeder  may,  by  avoiding  it,  rest  in  fancied 
security,  while  the  unsuspected  agencies  that  he  has 
overlooked  may  be  acting  with  undiminished  energy. 
We  have  already  observed  that,  in  the  highest  devel- 
opment of  special  characters  by  artificial  treatment, 
particularly  in  the  meat-producing  breeds,  a  delicacy 
of  constitution  is  produced  that  renders  the  animal 
more  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  modifying  agen- 
cies. 

When  this  impressibility  of  the  organization  is  in 
excess  and  becomes  a  marked  characteristic  of  a  fam- 
ily, it  will  be  fixed,  and  perhaps  intensified,  by  in-and- 
in  breeding ;  or,  in  other  words,  if  a  delicacy  of  con- 
stitution is  produced  by  the  system  of  management  to 
which  animals  are  subjected,  it  will  readily  be  made 
a  prominent  characteristic  by  in-and-in  breeding. 

That  the  close  breeding  in  this  case  is  not  the 
cause  of  the  impaired  condition  of  the  organization, 
but  rather  the  means  of  its  being  perpetuated,  cannot 
be  doubted.  The  following  cases,  in  connection  with 
a  number  of  a  similar  character  that  have  already 
been  cited,  will  show  that  in-and-in  breeding  is  not 
necessarily  associated  with  a  delicacy  of  constitution, 
and  it  does  not,  as  a  matter  of  course,  produce  it. 

In  the  first  volume  of  the  "  Hereford  Herd-Book  " 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  163 

is  a  portrait  of  the  closely  in-and-in  bred  bull  Cotmore 
(376) :  "  He  was  the  winner  of  the  first  prize  in  his 
class  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  Boyal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England,  held  at  Oxford.  He  was  also  a 
winner  of  many  local  prizes,  and  was,  perhaps,  one  of 
the  finest  bulls  ever  seen ;  his  colossal  proportions  were 
something  very  astounding,  as  may  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  the  live  weight  was  thirty-five  cwt. 

"  He  was  bred  by  Mr.  Jeffries,  of  the  Grove,  near 
Leominster." 

The  pedigree  of  Cotmore,  given  in  Diagram  7, 
shows  the  closest  in-and-in  breeding. 

"  Sovereign  (404),  when  at  the  age  oft.  fifteen  years, 
was  his  sire,  but  he  was  not  of  the  same  enormous 
size,  although  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the  best 
stock-getters  of  his  day.  He  was  bred  by  Mr.  Fewer, 
and  very  closely  in-and-in  bred."  1 

The  pedigree  shows  that  the  sire  of  Cotmore 
(Sovereign)  was  the  produce  of  (Favorite  and  Count- 
ess) full  brother  and  sister,  their  sire  and  dam  (Young 
Wellington  and  Cherry)  were  half  brother  and  sister, 
and  their  grandams  (Silky  and  Old  Cherry)  were 
half-sisters.  Lottery,  the  sire  of  Cotmore's  dam,  was 
not  only  closely  bred,  but  we  find  him  descended 
from  the  same  animals  as  Sovereign.  The  pedigree 
of  Cotmore's  grandam  is  not  given  in  the  "  Herd-Book." 

Mr.  George  Butts,  of  Manlius,  New  York,  has  re- 
cently furnished  an  instance  of  continued  close  breed- 
ing in  his  family  of  Short-Horns.  He  says :  "  I  bred 
Apricot's  Gloster  2500  upon  the  second  generation 

1  "Hereford  Breed  of  Cattle,"  by  T.  Duckham,  p.  18,  in  vol.  vi.  of 
"Hereford  Herd-Book." 


164: 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


)  Silver  (540) 

Young 

Primrose 

sr 

*rH 

"2, 

Wellington 
(505) 

(  Waxy  (403) 
Silky  \                      (Silver  (540) 
(Silk  -j 

1 

(  Silver  (540) 

a 

(Wellingtons 

(507)       (  Primrose 

w  Cherry  — 

(Waxy  (403) 
Old  Cherry  j 

(  Silver  (540) 

(Wellington  -4 

Young 

(507)       (  Primrose 

Wellington 

^505) 

Silkv           \                       (  Silver  (540) 

.1 

(Silk  -j  

1 

(  Silver  (540) 

f  Wellingtons 
J(507)       (  Primrose 

Cherry  

(Waxy  (403) 
[Old  Cherry  j 

f  Waxy  (403) 


Old 
Coffqueror  - 
(410) 

Chance       \                      f  Young  Welluigton  (505).    See 
(355)                                     above. 
[Gentle   J 
(  Wellington  (507). 
[Old  Gentle  -j     See  above. 

'Old  Sovereign  (404).    See  above. 

Lottery  (410) 

Fannv  ••••"!                      f  Wellington  \  M™  ^ 
(507)       (  Primrose 
Old  Fanny    4 
(  Silver  (540) 
[0!dFan...-j 

Red  Eose   . 

(  Silver  (540) 
Wellingtons 
(507)       (  Primrose 

Eosebud.J                      f  Wellington-] 
(507)       (  Primrose 

I1're"ymam1                    (Silver  «*» 
[Old  Beauty  -j 

DIAOBAM  7. — PEDIQBEE   OF   UEBEFOBD  BULL  COTMOBE. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  165 

of  heifers  of  his  own  get,  thereby  producing  Treble 
Gloster  7331.  I  then  bred  him  (Treble  Gloster) 
back  to  his  dam,  Spring  Beauty,  and  the  result  was  a 
very  fine  heifer,  Souvenir.  I  then  bred  Treble  Glos- 
ter again  to  Souvenir,  and  the  result  was  an  extra  fine 
heifer  which  is  May  Beauty ;  and  I  wish  here  to  say 
that  the  results  of  the  above  course  of  breeding  have 
been  so  entirely  satisfactory  in  the  past,  that  I  am 
now  breeding  Treble  Gloster  to  all  my  females,  re- 
gardless of  his  relationship  to  them,  in  the  fullest 
confidence  in  this  course  of  breeding."  l 

1  It  should  be  remarked  that  such  practice  is  not  to 
be  recommended,  except  in  cases  where  there  is  some 
special  object  to  be  accomplished,  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  finding  animals  free  from  defects. 

The  success  of  Mr.  Butts,  thus  far,  shows  that  the 
stamina  of  animals  is  not  necessarily  impaired  by  the 
closest  possible  breeding. 

The  wild  cattle  of  Chillingham  Park,  in  England, 
have,  as  is  well  known,  been  bred  within  the  limits  of 
the  herd  for  many  years,  their  origin  and  the  time  of 
their  inclosure  in  this  park  being  unknown.  Lord 
Tankerville,  in  1838,  said,  "  In  my  father  and  grand- 
father's time,  we  know  the  same  obscurity  as  to  their 
origin  prevailed."  2 

Mr.  Darwin  states  that  "  the  late  Lord  Tankerville 
owned  that  they  were  bad  breeders," s  and  he  estimated 
the  increase  of  the  herd  in  1861  at  about  one  in  five. 

1  Country  Gentleman,  1874,  p.  409. 

2  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol.  xxxvi.,  p.  354. 

3  "Report  of  the  British  Association,"  1838,  quoted  in  "Animals 
and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  148. 


166  PRINCIPLES  OP  STOCK-BKEEDING. 

When  I  saw  the  herd,  in  1874,  it  numbered  about 
sixty,  of  all  ages  and  sexes.  Among  them  were  sev- 
eral steers. 

The  park-keeper  informed  me  that  they  produced 
from  ten  to  twelve  calves  annually,  which  agrees 
closely  with  Mr.  Darwin's  estimate.  They  are  cer- 
tainly not  very  prolific,  yet  the  number  of  calves  is, 
perhaps,  as  great  as  could  be  expected  under  the  con- 
ditions in  which  they  are  placed. 

They  exhibited  no  indications  of  degeneracy  or 
lack  of  constitutional  vigor,  and  I  was  assured  that 
they  were  both  healthy  and  hardy.  After  several 
hundred  years  of  close  breeding  they  are  apparently 
as  robust  as  animals  that  have  frequently  received  in- 
fusions of  "  new  blood  "  by  crossing. 

Mr.  Ballance,  who  has  bred  Malay  fowls  for  nearly 
thirty  years,  says  :  "  During  the  whole  of  this  period 
I  have  never  allowed  the  introduction  of  any  fresh 
blood  by  crossing  with  any  other  strain  of  Malays, 
but  have  kept  entirely  to  my  own ;  and  as  I  have  suc- 
ceeded in  winning  more  prizes  with  Malays  than  any 
other  fancier  of  the^e  much-abused  but  most  valuable 
birds,  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  I  think  my  experi- 
ence is  not  to  be  despised,  as  testifying  to  the  fact 
that  breeding  in-and-in  does  not  necessarily  deteri- 
orate the  birds  who  may  be  subjected  to  this  opera- 
tion." 1 

"  Colonel  Jaques,  of  the  Ten  Hills  Farm,  near  Bos- 
ton, imported  a  pair  of  Bremen  geese  in  1822.  They 
were  bred  together  till  1830,  when  the  gander  was 
accidentally  killed. 

1  Tegetmeier's  "  Poultry-Book,"  p.  79. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  167 

"  Since  then  the  goose  bred  with  her  offspring,  till 
she  was  killed  by  an  attack  of  dogs  in  1852.  Great 
numbers  were  bred  during  this  time,  and  of  course 
there  was  much  of  the  closest  breeding,  yet  there  was 
no  deterioration,  and  in  fact  some  of  the  later  ones 
were  larger  and  better  than  the  first  pair.  The  same 
gentleman  also  obtained  a  pair  of  wild-geese  from 
Canada  in  1818,  which,  with  their  progeny,  were  bred 
from,  without  change,  until  destroyed  by  dogs  with 
the  above-named  in  1852.  They  continued  perfect  as 
at  first."  ' 

Mr.  James  Ruthven,  formerly  secretary  of  the 
North  British  Columbarian  Society,  says :  "  There  is 
one  fact  I  became  acquainted  with  three  years  since. 
A  gentleman  in  Ireland  got  one  pair  of  trumpeter 
pigeons,  and  put  them  into  a  large  loft  alone.  He 
kept  them  there  fifteen  years,  breeding  and  produc- 
ing, without  once  adding  fresh  blood;  only,  when 
they  got  too  numerous,  killing  off.  The  produce  are 
as  strong  birds  and  as  healthy  as  could  be  desired."  a 

Mr.  Dixon,  of  Canandaigua,  E"ew  York,  says  he  has 
bred  Dominique  fowls  for  twelve  years  without  hav- 
ing a  "  strange  cock  in  the  yard  during  that  time ; "  and 
his  stock  is  strong  and  hardy,  the  hens  laying  as  well 
as  those  of  his  neighbors  who  change  their  stock  often. 
The  cocks  averaged  about  seven  pounds  and  the  hens 
about  four  pounds." 3 

The  fecundity  of  animals,  as  has  been  shown  in  a 
preceding  chapter,  is  determined  by  inheritance,  and 

1  Goodale's  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  pp.  99,  100. 

2  Wright's  "Book  of  Poultry,"  p.  295. 

3  Country  Gentleman,  February,  1868,  p.  112. 


168  PRINCIPLES  Otf  STOCK-BREEDING. 

the  action  of  the  various  modifying  influences  to  which 
they  are  subjected.  In  the  cases  of  impaired  fecun- 
dity in  animals  that  have  been  bred  in-and-in,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  ascertain  the  extent  to  which  these 
obvious  causes  of  a  defective  performance  of  the 
reproductive  functions  are  operative,  before  we  are 
justified  in  assuming  the  existence  of  some  "  occult " 
or  mysterious  influence  arising  from  consanguinity. 

Mr.  John  Wright,  who  is  often  quoted  as  an  oppo- 
nent of  in-and-in  breeding,  has  evidently  overlooked 
the  existence  of  the  more  obvious  causes  of  sterility 
and  barrenness,  and  assumed  that  they  are  produced 
only  by  close  breeding.1 

He  apparently  concludes  that,  when  two  facts  are 
associated  in  a  large  number  of  cases,  they  must  have 
the  relation  of  cause  and  effect.  The  most  striking 
case  cited  in  support  of  his  theory  is  as  follows : 

"  In  pigs,  the  writer's  experience  was  considerable, 
in  breeding  from  three  or  four  sows  at  the  same  time, 
all  descended  from  the  same  parents,  boar  and  sow ; 
these  were  put  to  the  same  boar  for  seven  descents  or 
generations ;  the  result  was,  that  in  many  instances 
they  failed  to  J)reed^  in  others  they  bred  few  that 
lived ;  many  of  them  were  idiots — had  not  sense  to 
suck  ;  and,  when  attempting  to  walk,  they  could  not 
go  straight.  The  last  two  sows  of  the  breed  were  sent 
to  other  boars,  and  produced  several  litters  of  healthy 
pigs.  In  justice  to  the  advocates  of  the  in-and-in  prin- 
ciple, it  is  but  right  to  state  that  the  best  sow  during 
the  seven  generations  was  one  of  the  last  descent.  She 
was  the  only*pig  of  that  litter.  She  would  not  breed 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  vii.,  pp.  204,  205. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  169 

to -her  sire,  but  bred  to  a  stranger  in  blood  at  the  first 
trial.  She  possessed  great  substance  and  constitution 
and  was  a  very  superior  animal." 

It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  better  illustration  of 
the  physiological  principles  that  have  been  already 
presented,  and,  as  they  furnish  a  satisfactory  explana- 
tion of  all  the  observed  facts,  we  cannot  with  reason 
attribute  them  to  the  influence  of  other  causes.  An 
acquaintance  of  Mr.  Wright's  says  of  his  pigs,  "  They 
are  of  excellent  quality,  readily  feed,  and  soon  attain 
maturity."  ] 

The  fattening  qualities  of  these  pigs  had  been 
highly  developed,  and  finally  became  a  dominant  char- 
acteristic, while  the  procreative  powers  were  made 
latent. 

In  successfully  gaining  a  single  character,  Mr. 
Wright  had  neglected  another  essential  quality  that 
was  obscured  for  the  time  being.  The  high  develop- 
ment of  the  fatty  diathesis  would  be  sufficient  to  ac- 
count for  the  lack  of  fecundity  observed,  even  if  there 
was  not  on  the  start  an  hereditary  tendency  in  the 
same  direction. 

That  the  procreative  powers  were  not  destroyed, 
but  remained  latent,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  sows 
bred  freely  with  boars  of  another  family. 

With  boars  of  their  own  blood  they  could  not  be 
expected  to  breed,  as  the  powers  of  fecundity,  in  such 
case,  would  be  latent  in  both  male  and  female,  but, 
when  they  were  bred  with  animals  in  which  the  re- 
productive function  was  not  latent,  the  defect  was 
corrected. 

1  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol.  xxxvi.,  p.  388. 


170  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some  writers  that,  in 
cases  like  the  preceding,  where  high-bred  animals  do 
not  breed  readily  among  themselves,  a  condition  ex- 
ists analogous  to  that  observed  in  "  self -impotent " 
plants  and  other  hermaphrodite  organizations  that  are 
incapable  of  self-fertilization.1  The  cases,  however,  in 
which  high-bred  animals  are  perfectly  prolific  seem  to 
indicate  that  in-and-in  breeding  and  fecundity  are  not 
incompatible,  and  that  the  loss  of  fertility,  when  it 
occurs  in  high-bred  animals,  is  better  accounted  for 
on  the  principle  that,  in  the  correlation  of  functions, 
if  one  is  greatly  in  excess,  another  may  be  obscured. 

As  the  impaired  function  of  reproduction  may  fre- 
quently be  restored  by  a  suitable  selection  of  animals 
within  the  limits  of  a  high-bred  family,  it  would  like- 
wise appear  that  the  functional  defect  of  the  organiza- 
tion is  not  a  specific  one  resulting  from  an  approxi- 
mate identity  in  blood. 

From  the  well-known  fact  that  high-bred  animals, 
when  kept  under  different  conditions  are  more  prolific 
than  those  that  are  treated  in  the  same  manner,2  it 
must  be  apparent  that  the  suspension  of  the  reproduc- 
tive functions,  in  the  cases  under  consideration,  is  pro- 
duced by  the  modifying  agencies  to  which  the  animals 
are  subjected,  and  not  by  close  breeding. 

The  infertility  of  some  of  the  Booth  family  of 
Short-Horns8  has  been  attributed  to  the  forcing  sys- 

1  Darwin's  "Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p. 
177. 

2  Sebright's  "Art  of  improving  the  Breeds,"  etc.,  p.  16  ;  "American 
Cattle,"  by  Allen,  p.  206  ;  Sinclair's  "  Code  of  Agriculture,"  p.  95. 

8  Carr's  "History,"  p.  90. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  171 

tern  practised  in  "  training  "  for  exhibition,  rather  than 
in-and-in  breeding,  and  this  is  undoubtedly  a  potent 
cause  of  sterility  and  barrenness. 

In  the  pedigrees  that  we  have  selected  to  illustrate 
the  practice  of  different  breeders,  many  instances  may 
be  found  of  high-bred  animals  that  are  good  breeders. 
From  the  extent  to  which  in-and-in  breeding  was  car- 
ried in  the  case  of  Mr.  Robert  Colling's  cow  Clarissa, 
the  pedigree  in  Diagram  8  is  of  particular  interest. 
Clarissa  was  calved  in  1814,  and  produced  calves  in 
1817,  1818,  and  1819,  as  shown  by  the  "Herd-Book." 
Her  daughter  Restless,  got  by  Lancaster  (360),  who 
was  more  than  a  half-brother  to  Clarissa,  was  breeding 
at  six  and  seven  years  of  age.  Lancaster,  the  highest- 
priced  animal  at  R.  Colling's  sale  in  1818  (six  hundred 
and  twenty-one  guineas),  proved  a  valuable  sire,  and 
his  name  is  to  be  found  in  many  of  the  best  pedigrees 
of  the  present  day. 

The  Short-Horn  bull  Grazier  (1085)  was  closely 
inbred  (see  Diagram  9),  and  a  good  breeder.  Grazier 
was  bred  by  Mr.  "Wiley,  of  Brandsby,  near  York. 
He  was  used  in  the  herds  of  the  Earl  of  Carlisle,  Lord 
Feversham,  Sir  John  Johnstone,  Sir  I.  Rarnsdon,  Mr. 
William  Smith,  and  Mr.  Slater.  He  died  at  Byram 
when  fourteen  years  of  age.  Twenty-seven  sixty- 
fourths  of  his  blood  was  that  of  Favorite,  who  ap- 
pears for  the  first  time  in  the  pedigree  at  the  third 
generation  back. 

At  the  Milcote  sale  in  England,  March  28,  1860, 
thirty-one  descendants  of  the  cow  "  Charmer,"  includ- 
ing "three  old  cows"  and  several  calves,  sold  for 
£2,139  18^.,  an  average  of  over  £69  each. 


172 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


i    ill!     1 


jr-  f  Phenomenon 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  173 

f  Favorite  (252) 


f  Comet  (155) 
f  Adonis  (6)... 


(  Favorite  (252) 
. .  -j  j  Favorite  (252) 


(  Favorite  (252) 
rMarske(417)  •< 

Beauty -j  (  Favorite 

Miss          ( Washington    •{     (252) 
(.Washington    -j        (614)  ( 

tf. 

I  Favorite  (252) 

; Phenomenon^  I  Ben  (70) 

(491)         I 


DIAGRAM   9. — PEDIGBEE   OF   SHOET-HOBN  BULL   GRAZIEB. 

Charmer  "  was  a  most  extraordinary  milker,"  and 
the  herd  descended  from  her  were  said  to  be  "  capital 
milkers,  and  very  prolific,  not  having  been  pampered. 
...  Of  the  eight  bulls  named  in  the  fourth  generation 
from  which  she  is  descended,  one  was  '  Favorite.'  -  She 
is  one-sixteenth  Favorite,  therefore,  on  that  account. 
But  the  cow  to  which  he  was  then  put  was  also  de- 
scended from  '  Favorite,'  and  so  are  each  of  the  other 
seven  bulls  and  seven  cows  which  stand  on  the  same 
level  of  descent  with  the  great-great-grandam  of 
'Charmer.'  And,  in  fact,  it  will  be  found,  on  ex- 
amination, that  in  so  far  as  i  Charmer's '  pedigree  is 
known,  which  it  is  in  some  instances  to  the  sixteenth 


174:  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

generation,  she  is  not  one-sixteenth  only,  but  nearly 
nine-sixteenths  of  pure  '  Favorite  '  blood.  This  arises 
from  '  Favorite '  having  been  used  repeatedly  on  cows 
descended  from  himself.  ...  In  the  case  of  '  Charmer,' 
we  find  of  her  great-grandams  one  was  the  produce 
of  '  Favorite.'  None  of  her  progenitors  in  the  im- 
mediately preceding  generation  were  the  produce  of 
that  bull,  but  of  those  in  the  next  and  successive  gen- 
eration preceding,  there  were,  so  far  as  known,  2,  8, 
25,  58,  101,  and  99,  respectively  got  by  him.  .  .  . 

'  "  In  the  pedigree  of  '  Charmer '  we  repeatedly 
meet  with  '  Comet ; '  '  Comet '  was  by  '  Favorite,'  and 
his  dam,  <  Young  Phoenix,'  was  also  by  <  Favorite,' 
with  f  George ; '  '  George  '  was  by  '.  Favorite,'  and  his 
dam,  '  Lady  Grace,'  was  also  by  '  Favorite,'  with 
<  Chilton ; '  '  Chilton '  was  by  c  Favorite,'  and  his  dam 
also  was  by  c  Favorite,'  with  <  Minor ; '  '  Minor '  was 
by  '  Favorite,'  and  his  dam  also  was  by  '  Favorite,' 
with  6  Peeress  ; '  she  was  by  '  Favorite,'  and  her  dam 
also  was  by  '  Favorite,'  with  '  Bright  Eyes ; '  she  was 
by  '  Favorite,'  and  her  dam  also  by  '  Favorite,'  with 
i  Strawberry ; '  she  was  by  i  Favorite,'  and  her  dam 
by  '  Favorite ; '  <  Dandy '  and  c  Moss  Kose '  among  the 
cows,  and  '  North  Star '  among  the  bulls,  are  also  of 
similar  descent."  * 

An  examination  of  the  pedigree  will  show  that 
Charmer  traces  four  hundred  and  eight  lines  of  de- 
scent to  Favorite,  and  that  bulls  descended  from  half 
brother  and  sister  were  used  eighteen  times,  as  fol- 
lows :  Midas  five,  Barmpton  six,  Young  Lancaster 

1  Gardener's  Chronicle  and  Agricultural  Gazette,  1860,  pp.  270,  271, 
279,  294.     See  also  Goodale's  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  p.  97. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  175 

three,  Sultan  two,  and  Pope  and  Northampton  once 
each.  Twenty-four  times  animals  appear  whose  dam 
was  daughter  of  their  sire.  Seventeen  of  the  animals 
sold  were  got  by  the  bull  "  Mameluke,"  who  was  "  also 
full  of  '  Favorite '  blood." 

In  this  family  we  find  a  good  illustration  of  the 
principle  to  which  we  have  already  called  attention — 
that  "good- milking"  qualities  and  "good-breeding" 
qualities  are  usually  associated — and  this  may  safely 
be  attributed  to  the  animals  "  not  having  been  pam- 
pered," and  the  inheritance  of  ancestral  characters. 

"M.  Beaudowin  gives  the  particulars  of  a  flock 
of  merinos,  bred  in-and-in  for  twenty-two  years  with- 
out a  single  cross,  and  with  perfectly  successful  results, 
there  being  no  sign  of  decreased  fertility,  and  the 
breed  in  other  respects  having  been  improved." 

It  has  been  claimed  that  the  statistics  obtained  in 
asylums  for  the  insane,  the  idiotic,  and  the  deaf,  dumb, 
and  blind,  show  that  consanguineous  marriages  are  a 
fruitful  source  of  this  class  of  defects.  As  statistics 
of  this  kind  are  not  readily  accessible  to  the  general 

ler,  the  following  synopsis  of  the  reports  relating 
this  subject  will  be  of  interest  in  this  connection. 

In  the  examination  of  this  class  of  facts,  however, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  such  effects,  when  proved 
to  exist,  would  be  more  marked  in  the  human  family, 
where  there  is  a  high  development  of  the  intellectual 
faculties,  than  among  the  lower  animals  that  possess 
an  organization  that  is  more  symmetrically  balanced. 

"  Dr.  Chazarain,  a  young  physician  of  Bordeaux, 

1  Comptes-Rendus,  August  6,  1862;  according  to  "Transactions  of 
New  York  State  Medical  Society,"  1869,  p.  111. 


176  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

has  written  a  very  able  thesis  on  the  same  subject, 
which  contains  numerous  observations  on  the  influ- 
ence of  consanguinity  on  deaf -dumbness.  It  appears 
that  in  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institution  at  Bordeaux, 
of  thirty-nine  boys  deaf  and  dumb,  six  were  the  off- 
spring of  such  marriages ;  and  of  these  six,  one  boy 
had  two  brothers  deaf  and  dumb,  and  one  boy  had 
three  brothers  deaf  and  dumb,  making  a  total  of 
eleven. 

"  Of  twenty-seven  girls,  in  the  same  institution, 
nine  were  the  issue  of  such  marriages ;  and  of  this 
number,  six  had  between  them  seven  brothers  and 
sisters  similarly  affected,  making  a  total  of  sixteen; 
and  very  lately  (1860),  M.  Devay,  Professor  of  Clini- 
cal Medicine  at  Lyons,  has  brought  the  same  subject 
before  the  notice  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences, 
in  that  city ;  for,  to  so  great  an  extent  has  the  evil 
prevailed,  that  in  one  of  the  departments  of  France 
(Arieges),  the  clergy  have  endeavored  to  check  the 
frequency  of  such  marriages,  and  have  appealed  to 
the  authorities  at  Montpellier  to  aid  them  in  so  do- 
ing." 1 

"  In  a  very  able  paper  '  On  Marriages  of  Consan- 
guinity and  Deaf -Dumbness,'  which  is  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  one  of  the  most  constant  defects  resulting 
from  such  marriages,  M.  Boudin  informs  us  that '  deaf- 
mutes  are  the  issue  of  consanguineous  marriages  in  the 
proportion  of  twenty-eight  per  cent,  at  the  Paris  Im- 
perial Institution,  twenty-five  per  cent,  at  Lyons,  and 

thirty  per  cent,  at  Bordeaux  ; '  and  that  as  regards  the 
< 

1  Sedgwick,  in  the  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review, 
July,  1861,  p.  143. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  177 

Jews  in  Berlin,  27  in  10,000  are  deaf-mutes,  while  the 
proportion  is  only  6  in  10,000  among  the  Christian 
population  in  that  city;  and  apparently,  therefore, 
with  great  justice,  he  concludes  that  '  the  hypothesis 
of  the  pretended  harmlessness  of  consanguineous  mar- 
riages is  contradicted  by  the  most  evident  and  well- 
authenticated  facts.'  "  1 

Statistics  have  been  collected,  apparently  showing 
that  the  cousins  of  persons  who  are  deaf  and  dumb 
are  particularly  subject  to  the  same  defect,  and  it  has 
been  inferred  that  they  furnish  a  satisfactory  explana- 
tion of  the  preceding  statements.  As  we  wish  to  pre- 
sent as  strong  a  case  as  possible  in  favor  of  the  theory 
that  consanguineous  marriages  are  likely  to  result  in 
defects  in  the  offspring,  the  following  statistics  are 
added : 

From  "Wilde's  "  Eeport  on  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  of 
Ireland"  (as  quoted  by  Sedgwick),  it  appears  that 
"  in  cases  of  single  congenital  mutism,  where  the  re- 
lations were  also  deaf  and  dumb,  there  were  by  the 
father's  side  ....  in  one  instance  six  cousins  af- 
fected ;  in  three  cases  there  were  four  cousins,  and  in 
nine  cases  two  cousins  all  deaf-mutes.  Where  two  of 
the  family  were  affected  with  congenital  deaf-dumb- 

3,  in  two  instances  four  cousins  were  in '  a  similar 
condition ;  in  two  cases  three  cousins  were  deaf  and 
dumb,  and  in  four  instances  two  cousins  were  thus 
affected. 

"Where  three  cases  of  congenital  deaf -dumbness 
occurred  in  the  same  family  ....  in  five  cases,  two 
cousins  were  in  a  similar  condition.  When  the  rela- 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico-Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1863,  p.  179. 


178  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

tionsliip  came  by  the  mother's  side,  there  were  in 
cases  of  congenital  mutism  eight  cases  where  three 
cousins  were  deaf  and  dumb,  and  fourteen  instances 
where  two  cousins  were  thus  affected.  In  the  case 
of  two  mutes  in  the  same  family,  we  find  that  .... 
in  one  case  three  cousins,  and  in  four  cases  two 
cousins,  labored  under  the  like  defect  ....  and 
....  where  three  mutes  occurred  in  the  same  fami- 
ly ....  two  cases  presented  of  two  cousins  also  deaf 
and  dumb." 

These  facts,  upon  their  face,  appear  to  be  conclu- 
sive as  to  the  alleged  influence  of  consanguineous 
marriages  in  producing  the  defects  in  question.  In 
collecting  them,  however,  a  number  of  important 
points  have  been  neglected,  which  seriously  detract 
from  the  force  they  would  otherwise  be  entitled  to. 
Endemic  conditions,  we  have  already  observed,  have 
a  decided  influence  in  producing  similar  malforma- 
tions, and  an  inherited  tendency  of  the  parents  to  a 
diseased  condition  of  the  system  of  another  form 
would  likewise  aid  in  their  production. 

In  this  connection  it  will  be  well  to  examine  the 
facts  in  relation  to  the  heredity  of  deaf -mutism.  Dr. 
Joseph  Adams,1  in  noticing  the  statistics  furnished 
by  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  Institution  of  London,  says : 
"  Of  one  hundred  and  forty-eight  scholars  upon  the 
foundation  of  this  institution,  one  is  of  a  family 
where  there  are  five  deaf  and  dumb  (himself  in- 
cluded); one  where  there  are  four;  eleven  where 
there  are  three ;  and  nineteen  where  there  are  two. 

"  Of  the  scholars,  fifty-seven  are  girls,  and  the  rest 

1  "  Hereditary  Diseases,"  p.  66. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  1Y9 

boys ;  none  of  them  of  deaf  and  dumb  parents.  The 
gentleman  who  superintends  the  manufactories,  and 
who,  consequently,  has  the  best  opportunity  of  tracing 
the  subsequent  history  of  his  scholars,  informs  me 
that  some  of  them  are  married  and  have  children,  all 
of  whom  are  perfect  in  their  organs  of  hearing.  One 
instance  has  occurred,  in  which  both  parents  were 
born  deaf,  yet  their  children  hear." 

"  At  the  school  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Man- 
chester (England),  in  1837,  *  there  were  forty-eight 
children  taken  from  seventeen  families  ....  an 
average  of  nearly  three  such  cases  in  each  family. 
Out  of  these  instances  there  appears  but  one  in  which 
the  defect  was  known  to  exist  in  either  parent." 

The  following  cases  are  likewise  quoted  from  Mr. 
Sedgwick's  valuable  article  on  "  Hereditary  Diseases : " 
"  Mr.  Wilde,  whose  observations  included  the  whole 
of  the  deaf  and  dumb  population  of  Ireland,  states, 
that  c  ninety  -  eight  deaf  and  dumb  persons  —  sixty 
males,  and  thirty-eight  females — were  married.  In 
eighty-six  instances — fifty-four  males,  and  thirty-two 
females — only  one  parent  was  deaf  and  dumb :  from 
the  marriage  of  these,  two  hundred  and  three  children 
resulted,  among  whom  there  was  but  one  instance  of 
mutism,  a  male,  in  the  county  of  Limerick.  Six  in- 
stances have  been  recorded  of  the  intermarriage  of 
deaf  and  dumb  persons  :  their  offspring  amounted  to 
thirteen,  of  whom  only  one,  a  female,  in  the  city  of 
Dublin,  was  deaf  and  dumb.' " 

"Lastly,  in  the  thirty-fifth  annual  report  of  the 

1  "Notes  and  Reflections,"  by  Sir  Henry  Holland,  as  quoted  by 
Sedgwick,  loc.  tit.,  p.  142. 


180  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

asylum  in  Hartford  (United  States),  we  find  that  one 
hundred  and  three  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  had  been, 
or  are  now,  married.  In  forty-one  of  these  marriages, 
both  parties  were  deaf  and  dumb ;  in  twenty-three, 
one  could  speak  or  hear.  Of  these  one  hundred  and 
three,  thirty-one  had  not  become  parents,  but  the  re- 
maining seventy-two  were  parents  of  one  hundred  and 
two  children,  of  whom  ninety-eight  could  hear  and 
speak,  and  four  only  were  deaf  and  dumb.  One  of 
the  four  was  the  only  child  of  his  parents,  both  of 
whom  were  congenitally  deaf.  Besides  the  parents, 
the  paternal  grandfather,  a  sister  of  the  father,  and 
two  sons  of  this  sister,  were  deaf  and  dumb.  In  the 
other  family,  that  of  three  children,  the  father  lost 
his  hearing  by  disease  at  two  years  of  age,  and  had 
no  known  relative  deaf  and  dumb.  The  mother  was 
born  deaf,  and  had  a  deaf  and  dumb  brother." 

In  commenting  upon  the  fallacy  of  inferences 
drawn  from  the  preceding  statistics,  and  particularly 
on  those  presented  by  M.  Boudin  in  his  paper  on 
consanguineous  marriages  above  quoted,  Mr.  Sedg- 
wick  says :  "  In  the  first  place,  with  regard  to  the  sup- 
posed frequency  of  consanguineous  marriages  among 
the  Jews,  M.  Isidor,  the  Grand  Kabbi  of  Paris,  states 
that  such  marriages  are  far  less  frequent  than  is  gen- 
erally believed ;  and,  moreover,  if  the  inference  drawn 
from  the  great  prevalence  of  deaf -mutism  among  the 
Jews  of  Berlin  were  correct,  the  statistics  would  be 
found  to  coincide  with  those  of  deaf -mutism  among  the 
Jews  elsewhere,  but  such  is  not  the  case,  for,  although 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico- CMrurgical  Review,  July,  1861,  p. 
143. 


; 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  181 

the  number  of  Jews  in  Paris  is  estimated  at  twenty 
five  thousand,  only  four  of  them  are  deaf-mutes. 
Again,  with  respect  to  the  greater  frequency  of  deaf- 
mutism  in  other  races  among  the  offspring  of  those 
who  are  allied,  compared  with  those  who  are  aliens 
by  blood,  although  the  facts  adduced  by  M.  Boudin 
and  other  writers  are  undoubtedly  correct,  yet  the  in- 
ference that  has  been  drawn  from  them  is  in  like  man- 
ner probably  erroneousj  for  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  illus- 
trations of  deaf -mutism  in  these  cases  of  consanguinity, 
have  occurred  in  circumscribed  localities,  where  deaf- 
mutism,  independent  of  consanguinity,  is  more  com- 
mon than  elsewhere.  Mr.  W.  K.  Scott,  of  the  Deaf 
and  Dimib  Institution  at  Exeter,  has  lately  called  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  deaf-mutism  occurs  in  much 
larger  proportion  in  secluded  and  rural  populations 
than  in  urban  and  manufacturing  districts;  in  the 
union  of  Crediton,  in  Devonshire,  one  in  1,143  of  the 
population  is  a  deaf-mute,  and  in  the  Scilly  Islands 
this  is  still  more  remarkably  shown  by  the  fact  that 
there  are  no  less  than  six  deaf-mutes  in  a  population 

f  2,677,  or  one  in  446.  But  perhaps  the  strongest 
argument  against  the  unqualified  admission  in  these 
cases  of  consanguinity  as  the  fons  et  origo  mali,  is 
e  fact  that  deaf-mutism  cannot  as  a  rule  be  directly 
transmitted  to  the  offspring  even  in  those  'cases  in 
which  both  the  parents  are  deaf-mutes ;  for  it  is  chiefly 

y  means  of  breeding-in  that  peculiarities  of  structure 
among  the  lower  animals  are  perpetuated  ;  and  their 
hereditary  transmission  is  effected  with  so  much  cer- 
tainty and  facility  that  it  would  be  difficult,  in  the 
present  day,  to  say  what  amount  of  abnormal  develop- 


182  PEINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

merit  may  not  by  this  system  be  established  as  a  per- 
manent variety. 

"  It  is  therefore  evident  that  consanguinity  alone 
cannot  be  accepted  as  the  cause  of  deaf-mutism,  nor 
consequently  as  the  sole  cause  of  any  other  diseases  or 
defects  which  have  from  time  to  time  been  ascribed  to 
it."  ' 

In  1858,  Dr.  Bemis,  of  Kentucky,  made  a  report a 
to  the  American  Medical  Association  on  "  Marriages 
of  Consanguinity,"  in  which  he  gives  an  imperfect 
history  of  eight  hundred  and  seventy-three  instances 
of  such  marriages. 

The  conclusions  of  the  author  are  briefly  stated  in 
the  paper  as  follows :  "  I  feel  satisfied,  however,  that 
my  researches  give  me  authority  to  assume  that  over 
ten  per  cent,  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  over  five  per 
cent,  of  the  blind,  and  near  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the 
idiotic  in  our  State  institutions  for  subjects  of  those 
defects,  and  throughout  the  country  at  large,  are  the 
offspring  of  kindred  parents,  or  of  parents -themselves 
the  descendants  of  blood  intermarriage." 

It  will  be  observed  that  Dr.  Bemis  does  not  assume 
that  the  relationship  of  the  parents  is  the  cause  of  the 
defects  of  their  children,  and  there  is  nothing  in  the 
report  to  warrant  such  a  conclusion.  The  facts  pre- 
sented in  the  report  are  of  particular  interest,  as  they 
furnish  a  good  illustration  of  the  difficulty  of  obtain- 
ing exact  statistical  information  on  subjects  of  this 
kind.  One  source  of  fallacy,  arising  from  the  manner 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1863,  pp. 
179,  180. 

8  "  Transactions  of  the  American  Medical  Association,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  319. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  183 

in  which  the  statistics  were  collected,  is  noticed  by  Dr. 
Bemis,  who  says :  "  But  while  indorsing  the  truthful- 
ness of  these  statistics,  it  is  my  duty  to  state  that  those 
which  relate  to  marriages  of  consanguinity  should  prob- 
ably not  be  received  as  a  completely  true  representa- 
tion of  the  results  of  such  marriages ;  some  modifica- 
tion of  the  mean  of  results  might  occur  if  the  statis- 
tics of  all  instances  of  in-and-in  marrying,  in  the  Union, 
for  example,  could  be  comprised  in  one  report.  It  is 
natural  for  contributors  to  overlook  many  of  the  more 
fortunate  results  of  family  intermarriage,  and  furnish 
those  followed  by  defective  offspring  or  sterility.  The 
mere  existence  of  either  of  these  conditions  would 
prompt  inquiry,  while  the  favorable  cases  might  pass 
unnoticed." 

It  is  well  known  that  the  defects  in  question  may 
be  produced  by  a  variety  of  causes,  but  their  presence 
or  absence  in  the  cases  reported  is  not  noticed. 

When  a  predisposition  to  these  or  similar  defects 
exists  in  a  family,  the  intermarriage  of  its  members 
would,  without  doubt,  result  in  their  repetition  in  the 
offspring  by  direct  transmission,  and  the  influence  of 
the  relationship  of  the  parents  could  not,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  be  determined. 

In  nearly  all  the  cases  collected  by  Dr.  Bemis,  the 
history  of  the  ancestors  of  the  parents  is  not  given, 
and  there  is  therefore  nothing  to  show  that  the  defec- 
tive children  in  the  cases  reported  have  not  been  af- 
flicted by  a  direct  inheritance  of  their  deformity.  In 
one  hundred  and  eighty-one  of  the  cases,  one  or  both 
parents  are  reported  as  delicate  in  constitution,  addict- 
ed to  bad  habits,  or  suffering  from  disease,  and  in  over 


184  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

one  hundred  cases  no  report  is  given  as  to  the  health 
or  habits  of  the  parents. 

The  mere  fact  that  the  parents  of  these  defective 
children  were  related,  throws  no  light  upon  the  cause 
of  their  infirmities,  which  can  only  be  determined  bj 
a  knowledge  of  details  that  the  report  does  not  fur- 
nish. 

Dr.  Robert  Newman,  of  New  York,  as  chairman 
of  a  committee  appointed  for  that  purpose,  made  a 
"  Report  on  the  Result  of  Consanguineous  Marriages" 
to  the  New  York  State  Medical  Society,  from  which 
we  make  the  following  extracts,  showing  the  opinions 
of  able  men  who  have  given  the  subject  a  careful  ex- 
amination, and  a  summary  of  the  results  of  the  in- 
quiries made  by  the  committee. 

Dr.  Gilbert  Child  says,  "  The  marriages  of  blood 
relations  have  no  tendency,  per  se,  to  produce  degen- 
eration of  race." 

Prof.  S.  H.  Dickson,  of  Philadelphia,  in  his  lect- 
ures on  "Scrofulosis  and  Tuberculosis,"  makes  the 
following  statement :  "  Several  writers  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic — on  this  side  Prof.  Bemis — ascribe 
much  of  tuberculosis  and  scrofulosis  to  the  marrying 
of  relatives — physical  incest,  as  it  is  called.  I  think 
the  truth  can  be  put  in  a  nutshell.  I  suggest  it  to 
you,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  exaggeration  on  this  sub- 
ject, yet  there  is  much  reason  for  the  belief  that  the 
intermarriage  of  relatives  is  dangerous  to  the  offspring, 
not  on  account  of  their  mere  consanguinity,  but  be- 
cause they  are  likely  to  have  the  same  predisposition 
to  scrofula,  if  that  predisposition  exists  in  that  family. 
.  .  .  Therefore  we  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  185 

I 

not  an  essential  result  of  marriage  of  consanguinity 
that  there  should  be  scrofulous  or  other  degeneracy." 
Dr.  Edward  Jarvis,  the  distinguished  statistician,  in  a 
letter  to  Dr.  Newman,  says :  "  Cousins,  descendants 
from  a  common  ancestry,  have  a  common  heritage — 
of  good,  of  evil,  of  power,  and  weakness  ;  and,  if  these 
join  in  marriage,  their  issue  have  a  double  chance  of 
inheriting  whatever  qualities  they  may  both  possess. 
If,  then,  both  parents,  although  cousins,  are  perfect  in 
constitution  and  health,  and  have  nothing  to  transmit 
but  power,  then  their  children  have  a  double  security 
against  constitutional  imperfection,  and  a  double  war- 
rantee of  inherited  capacity  and  strength.  The  con- 
verse is  also  true  with  cousins  who  have  imperfections 
and  liabilities  in  common.  If  they  marry,  they  pro- 
vide a  double  chance  of  the  repetition  of  the  same 
weaknesses  and  susceptibilities  in  their  offspring.  .  .  . 
In  this  view  of  the  matter,  the  objection  to  consan- 
guineous marriages  lies  not  in  the  bare  fact  of  their 
relationship,  but  in  the  fear  of  their  having  similar 
vitiations  of  constitution." 

Dr.  Newman  gives  the  details  of  thirty-two  in- 
stances of  consanguineous  marriages,  in  different  locali- 
ties. The  result,  as  far  as  reported,  was  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  children,  or  nearly  an  average  of  four 
to  each  marriage,  and  there  were  instances  of  eight, 
eleven,  twelve,  and  even  fourteen  children  in  a  family ; 
while  but  one  marriage  proved  unproductive,  but  in 
this  case  both  parties  were  affected  with  disease.  Of 
the  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  children,  but  four- 
teen died  under  two  years  of  age,  which  is  eleven  per 
cent. ;  while  iix  Michigan,  in  1870,  according  to  the  re- 


186  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

ports  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  the  mortality  of 
children  under  two  years  was  nineteen  and  one-half 
per  cent.,  and  in  the  metropolitan  district  of  New 
York,  in  1868,  it  was  thirty-eight  per  cent. 

Dr.  Newman  says :  "  With  regard  to  scrofulous 
children  we  observe  as  follows :  Either  parent,  or  both, 
we  find  scrofulous  or  tuberculous  in  six  cases,  Nos.  3, 
5,  16,  18,  20,  and  21,  the  offspring  of  which  were,  so 
far,  fifteen  children,  of  which  four  died  young,  a  com- 
mon percentage ;  in  reference  to  health,  we  find  fiv< 
scrofulous  and  ten  healthy,  therefore  we  have  froi 
partly  unhealthy  parents  two-thirds  healthy  children." 

"  In  regard  to  healthy  or  unhealthy  organization, 
we  find  of  these  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  chil- 
dren deviating  from  a  perfect  state,  as  follows."  Five 
scrofulous,  above  mentioned  ;  one  case  of  epilepsy  and 
one  of  amaurosis  in  the  same  family,  with  twelve  other 
children  not  thus  affected ;  one  case  of  two  children 
in  a  family  "  having  only  two  phalangeal  bones  in  the 
index-finger,  otherwise  they  are  reported  as  healthy 
and  intelligent ; "  and  two  deaf-mutes  in  one  family. 
The  cases  of  the  deaf-mutes  and  the  child  said  to  be 
"  simple  "  occurred  at  Panama  under  circumstances 
not  favorable  to  healthy  development.  In  the  same 
report,1  Dr.  Newman  says :  "  We  cannot  but  notice 
here  a  fact  communicated  by  Dr.  H.  Kuapp,  late  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  which  we  add 
to  the  statistics:  In  Nassau  (Germany),  only  three 
families  established  the  village  of  Dauborn,  and  kept 
entirely  isolated.  Their  children,  therefore,  intermar- 

1 "  Transactions  of  the  New  York  State  Medical  Society,"  1869,  pp. 
109-130. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  187 

ried ;  and  at  present  the  village  has  fifteen  hundred 
inhabitants,  who  are  of  strong  constitution,  and  are 
active,  sprightly,  intelligent,  and  healthy.  Our  in- 
formant had  this  place  directly  under  his  observation, 
and  says  he  neither  saw  deformity  nor  insanity,  and 
only  one  case  of  deaf -mutism ;  in  fact,  the  entire  race 
was  robust  and  healthful." 

Dr.  T.  A.  McGraw,  who  has  written  an  interesting 
article  on  this  subject,  says :  "  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  close  and  continual  interbreeding  has  taken  place, 
time  and  again,  without  any  evident  injurious  conse- 
quences among  simple  and  uncultivated  communi- 
ties. Notable  examples  are  the  Pitcairn  Island  settle- 
ment, formed  from  the  close  in-and-in  breeding  of  the 
progeny  of  four  mutineers  from  the  ship  Bounty,  and 
nine  native  women;  the  small  community  of  fisher- 
men near  Brighton,  England ;  the  numerous  small 
and  isolated  villages  of  Iceland ;  and  the  Basque  and 
Bas-Breton  settlements  among  the  Pyrenees.  .  .  .  We 
must  admit,  from  overwhelming  evidence,  that  under 
such  circumstances  as  the  settlements  just  mentioned 
afforded,  consanguinity  among  married  people  does 
not  necessarily  cause  evil  results  to  the  progeny.  If 
it  is  asked  how  it  would  be  with  men  of  more  civilized 
habits,  we  are  unfortunately  obliged  to  confess  that 
there  are  no  statistics  whatever  on  the  subject  which 
can  give  us  any  exact  and  trustworthy  information." ' 

Dr.  Mitchell,  of  the  Edinburgh  College  of  Physi- 
cians, says  of  idiocy  and  its  relations  to  marriages  of 
consanguinity,  that  in  more  than  sixty  per  cent,  of  the 

1  Dr.  T.  A.  McGraw's  "Address  on  Heredity  and  Marriage,  pp.  12, 
13. 


188  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

cases  occurring  in  the  British  Isles  the  condition  is 
acquired  and  not  congenital.1 

Of  fifteen  hundred  and  fifty-seven  patients  in  the 
insane  asylums  of  Paris,  Auguste  Yoisin  found  none 
that  were  the  result  of  consanguinity.3 

The  facts  that  have  thus  far  been  collected  in  re- 
gard to  this  subject  seem  to  warrant  the  conclusion 
that  close  breeding,  in  itself  considered,  is  not  injuri- 
ous ;  but,  as  it  tends  to  fix  and  perpetuate  the  consti- 
tutional defects  that  have  been  produced  by  other 
well-known  agencies,  it  should  not  be  practised  by 
careless  or  inexperienced  persons,  who  do  not  make  a 
judicious  selection  of  their  breeding-stock,  as  they  are 
likely  to  obtain,  through  its  influence,  the  most  un- 
satisfactory results. 

(The  most  obvious  objection  to  close  breeding — and 
it  is  perhaps  the  only  one  of  importance — is  the  diffi- 
culty of  selecting  animals  that  are  free  from  constitu- 
tional defects,  and  the  danger  arising  from  the  ten- 
dency of  such  defects  to  become  dominant  in  the  off- 
spring. \ 

It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  it  is  an  impor- 
tant means  of  improvement  when  judiciously  prac- 
tised, and  that  it  constitutes  the  only  known  method 
of  securing  an  accumulation  of  the  slight  variations, 
in  a  particular  direction,  that  it  may  be  desirable  to 
retain  and  perpetuate. 

The  greatest  improvement  in  the  form  and  quali- 

1  Popular  Science  Monthly,  June,  1872,  p.  250. 

8  London  Lancet,  quoted  in  the  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Decem- 
ber, 1873,  p.  179;  and  in  the  Pacific  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal, 
February,  1877,  p.  408. 


IN-AND-IN  BREEDING.  189 

ties  of  animals  can  only  be  made  by  those  who  possess 
the  requisite  knowledge  and  skill  to  enable  them  to 
blend  and  perpetuate  all  desirable  variations,  through 
a  system  of  rigorous  selection  and  close  breeding, 
without  impairing  the  constitution  by  an  accumula- 
tion of  undesirable  characters. 


CHAPTER  X. 

CKOSS-BKEEDING. 

CKOSS-BREEDING,  strictly  speaking,  is  the  pairing 
of  animals  belonging  to  distinct  breeds,  and,  in  this 
limited  sense,  it  may  be  considered  the  opposite  of  in- 
and-in  breeding. 

The  terms  "crossing,"  "making  a  cross,"  "out- 
breeding,"  and  "cross-breeding,"  are,  however,  fre- 
quently used  to  indicate  the  mixture  of  the  blood  of 
different  families  belonging  to  the  same  breed.  As 
the  principle  involved  in  both  of  these  methods  is  the 
same,  and  the  loose  use  of  these  terms  is  not  likely  to 
lead  to  any  serious  confusion  in  their  application,  we 
need  not  attempt  to  assign  them  a  more  definite 
meaning. 

The  advantages  of  cross-breeding  have  been  strong- 
ly urged  by  a  large  number  of  writers,  and  in  many 
instances  it  is  undoubtedly  the  best  possible  practice. 
The  improvements  that  have  been  effected  by  cross- 
ing, in  particular  cases,  have  been,  however,  without 
sufficient  reason  attributed  to  some  direct  influence 
arising  from  the  process  itself.  Some  of  the  best 
authorities  on  this  subject  have  evidently  been  misled 
in  their  attempted  explanation  of  the  advantages  of 
the  system,  by  placing  too  much  confidence  in  the 


CROSS-BREEDING.  191 

theory  that  the  male  has  the  greatest  influence  in 
determining  the  form  and  general  qualities  of  the 
offspring.1 

Before  attempting  to  ascertain  the  effects  of  cross- 
breeding, in  itself  considered,  it  will  be  well  to  ex- 
amine some  of  the  cases  in  which  it  has  been  success- 
fully practised,  with  especial  reference  to  the  condi- 
tions that  made  it  desirable. 

Cross-breeding  has,  perhaps,  been  practised  to  a 
greater  extent  with  sheep  than  with  any  other  class  of 
animals,  and  among  them  we  find  the  best  examples 
of  well-established  cross-breeds.  In  Hampshire  the 
old  horned  breed  of  sheep,  with  its  "  large  bones," 
"high  withers,"  and  sharp  spine,  was  crossed  with 
rams  of  the  improved  Southdown,  until  its  original 
defective  characters  almost  entirely  disappeared. 

The  improved  Hampshire  are  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  horns,  "a  broader  back,  rounder  barrel, 
shorter  legs,  and  superior  quality  altogether."9 

Some  of  the  leading  breeders  of  the  Hampshires 
were  not  content  to  rely  upon  the  general  superiority 
of  the  improved  Southdowns  in  improving  their 
flocks,  but  obtained  the  best  rams  that  could  be  found 
in  the  flocks  of  the  most  celebrated  breeders.  Mr. 
William  Humphrey,  a  noted  Hampshire  breeder,  it  is 
said,  sent  to  Jonas  "Webb  for  one  of  "  his  best  sheep," 
and  Mr.  Spooner  attributes  his  success  to  a  great 
extent  "  in  seeking  his  improvements  from  such  a 
renowned  flock." 8 

1  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture^  vol.  i.,  p.  34 ;  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xx.,  pp.  294-310. 

8  Ibid.,  p.  300.  »  Ibid.,  pp.  305-312. 


192  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

In  Wiltshire,  where  the  same  old  horned  stock 
originally  prevailed,  a  different  system  was  practised 
— the  improved  Southdown  gradually  took  the  place 
of  the  old  breed,  which  soon  disappeared.  The  im- 
ported Southdown  ewes  were  after  a  time  crossed 
with  improved  Hampshire  rams,  that  already  had  a 
large  proportion  of  Southdown  blood,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  an  increase  in  size.1 

The  Morfe  Common  sheep  of  Shropshire  were  a 
small,  fine-wooled  race,  accustomed  to  short  pastures 
and  scanty  fare.  The  improved  Shropshire,  the  result 
of  a  cross  of  the  old  race  with  the  Cotswold,  Leicester, 
or  Southdown,  is  larger,  more  compact,  fattens  more 
rapidly,  and  in  general  qualities  is  better  adapted  to 
an  improved  system  of  husbandry. 

The  new  Oxfordshire  breed,  which  is  highly  prized 
in  many  localities,  was  obtained  by  crossing  Cotswold 
rams  on  Hampshire  or  "West  Country  Down  sheep.2 

"  There  are  few  districts  in  England  in  which  some 
advantage  has  not  been  derived  from  the  cross-breed- 
ing of  sheep.  Even  the  little  mountain-sheep  of  "Wales 
has  been  greatly  improved  by  the  Cheviot  ram,  a 
larger,  superior,  but  still  a  mountain-sheep. 

"  At  the  same  time  the  Cheviots  themselves  have 
been  improved  for  the  butcher  by  crosses  with  the 
Leicester,  the  Cotswold,  and  the  Down.  Their  prog- 
eny have  been  increased  in  size,  and  fatten  more 
readily." " 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xx.,  p.  303. 
8  Ibid.,  p.  308. 

3  Spooner  on  "  Cross-Breeding."    Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society,  vol.  xx.,  p.  309. 


CROSS-BREEDING.  193 

Iii  all  of  these  cases  the  object  has  been  to  improve 
an  inferior  breed  by  ingrafting  upon  it  the  superior 
characteristics  of  another.  The  improvement  has 
been  produced,  not  from  the  fact  that  a  male  of  an- 
other breed  has  been  used,  but  from  the  higher  breed- 
ing and  superior  qualities  of  the  males  thus  selected. 
The  superior  male  is  found  to  be  prepotent  when 
coupled  with  females  of  inferior  quality. 

The  experience  of  breeders  in  making  a  cross  of 
Cheviot  rams  upon  the  ewes  of  the  Black-Faced  Heath 
breed  will  furnish  some  important  suggestions  in  re- 
gard to  the  real  causes  of  improvement. 

"  In  this  cross,"  says  the  intelligent  Scotch  shep- 
herd, William  Hogg,  "  the  independent  habits  of  the 
mountain-flocks  were  lost,  and  a  mongrel  progeny,  of 
a  clumsy  figure,  occupied  the  lowest  and  warmest  of 
the  pastures."  The  cross-bred  animals,  although  re- 
taining largely  the  characteristics  of  the  original  breed, 
were  not  able  to  withstand  the  "  hardships  and  cold 
of  winter,"  and  they  required  better  care  and  better 
pastures  than  the  old  race  had  been  accustomed  to. 

"  Another  truth  which  the  process  of  changing  a 
numerous  stock  has  disclosed  is,  that,  in  the  produce 
of  the  first  crop,  and  for  several  successive  issues,  the 
figure,  wool,  and  other  qualities  of  the  Cheviot  ram, 
are  most  conspicuous  in  the  smallest  and  feeblest  of 
the  progeny ;  while  the  properties  of  the  mountain- 
breed  are  more  fully  exhibited  in  the  strongest  and 
most  robust  of  the  lambs.  This  misled  many  of  the 
storemasters.  They  did  not  consider  that  there  was 
as  much  Cheviot  blood  in  the  coarsest  (as  they  were 
pleased  to  call  them)  as  in  the  finest ;  though  not  so 


194  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

clearly  exhibited  in  its  external  qualities.  Tins  in- 
duced them  to  throw  aside  the  best  of  the  lambs  and 
select  those  to  breed  from  which  had  apparently  most 
of  the  Cheviot  figure.  This  was  an  additional  dis- 
advantage ;  for,  as  it  prevailed  wherever  the  experi- 
ment was  tried,  the  mountain-flocks  in  general  were 
smaller  and  feebler  than  ever  they  were  known  to 
have  been ;  and  were,  consequently,  more  vulnerable 
to  bad  seasons,  a  course  of  which  happened  to  accom- 
pany the  change."  * 

The  stability  of  the  characteristics  of  the  old 
mountain  -  breed  was  shown  in  the  readiness  with 
which  the  cross-bred  animals  were  "  bred  back  "  to 
the  original  type,  and  the  frequent  appearance  of  the 
old  characters  by  atavic  descent  after  an  effort  for 
twenty-five  years  to  establish  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Cheviot. 

"The  black-faced  sheep,"  says  Youatt,  "seemed 
obstinately  to  resist  the  influence  of  foreign  crosses. 
The  Leicester,  and  even  the  Cheviot  blood,  added 
little  to  the  value  either  of  the  fleece  or  the  carcass, 
while  they  materially  lessened  the  hardihood  of  the 
sheep."  a 

Sir  John  Sinclair  also  observes  that  "  the  Dishley 
breed  is  perhaps  the  best  ever  reared  for  a  rich,  arable 
district ;  but  the  least  tincture  of  this  blood  is  destruc- 
tive to  the  mountain-sheep,  as  it  makes  them  incapable 
of  withstanding  the  least  scarcity  of  food." s 

The  Cheviots,  although  a  mountain-breed  adapted 

1  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  i.,  p.  178. 

2  Youatt  on  "Sheep,"  p.  325. 

3  As  quoted  by  Youatt,  loc.  cit.,  p.  325. 


CROSS-BREEDING.  195 

to  moderate  elevations  and  better  pastures  than  the 
black-faces  required,  were  decidedly  improved  by  a 
cross  of  the  improved  Leicester,1  the  conditions  in 
which  they  were  placed  admitting  of  a  class  of  ani- 
mals of  better-feeding  quality. 

The  cross  of  a  superior  breed  on  one  that  is  in- 
ferior cannot,  then,  succeed  in  producing  improvement 
without  being  accompanied  by  better  management 
and  more  liberal  feeding.  After  the  times  described 
by  Hogg  and  Youatt,  the  Cheviots  were  extensively 
introduced  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  their 
success  is  an  evidence  of  an  improved  condition  of 
agriculture.  In  the  cross-breeding  of  cattle  and  horses 
the  same  influences  have  determined,  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent,  the  success  or  failure  of  the  practice. 

The  advocates  of  a  system  of  cross-breeding,  al- 
most without  exception,  insist  upon  the  importance 
of  making  use  of  males  of  superior  character  in  all 
essential  qualities.  "  Having  duly  recognized  the 
claims  of  thorough-bred  horses  of  the  first  and  second 
class,"  says  Mr.  Spooner,  "  we  can  only  advise,  with 
regard  to  the  third  and  inferior  classes,  that  their  ser- 
vices be  altogether  dispensed  with,  their  place  being 
taken  by  three-fourths  or  half-bred  stallions,  possess- 
ing bone,  substance,  and  good  hunting  qualifica- 
tions."3 

He  prefers  "  the  services  of  a  first-class,  thorough- 
bred stallion  ....  on  the  rare  occasions  when  they  are 
offered  " — but,  when  they  cannot  be  procured,  a  part- 
bred  stallion  is  to  be  selected,  provided  he  is  better  in 

1  Youatt,  loc.  cit.,  p.  335. 

2  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  1865,  p.  165. 


196  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

the  points  it  is  desirable  to  perpetuate  than  the  pure- 
bred stallions  that  are  within  reach. 

The  cross  of  the  pure-bred  stallion  upon  mares  of 
mixed  blood  is  not,  then,  to  be  recommended  if  the 
stallion  is  inferior  in  its  characters ;  and  the  general 
rule  of  breeding,  to  which  there  are  no  exceptions, 
that  the  best  males  it  is  possible  to  obtain  should  only 
be  used,  becomes  the  guide  in  practice. 

In  an  article  "  On  Cross-Breeding  Cattle,"  Mr. 
Murray  says :  "  The  importance  of  using,  even  for  cross- 
breeding, none  but  first-class  bulls,  can  hardly  be  suf- 
ficiently insisted  upon.  Indeed,  the  marked  success 
which  has  attended  the  use  of  Short-Horn  bulls  may 
be  attributed  not  less  to  their  established  position  than 
to  the  intrinsic  merits  of  the  race ; "  1  and  he  adds, 
"  We  are  fully  convinced  that,  even  for  the  purpose 
of  cross-breeding,  the  purer  the  blood  on  the  paternal 
side,  the  more  clearly  will  excellence  be  stamped  on 
the  progeny."  The  same  writer  attributes  the  failure, 
in  cases  of  unsuccessful  crossing,  to  the  use  of  inferior 
bulls  that  were  not  able  to  impress  any  superior  quali- 
ties upon  their  offspring.8 

Short-Horn  bulls  have,  undoubtedly,  been  more 
extensively  used  in  crossing  other  breeds  than  any 
others ;  but,  when  the  cross  has  been  successful,  it  can 
ouly  be  attributed  to  the  higher  breeding  and  superi- 
ority of  the  typical  characters  of  such  bulls,  which 
enabled  them  to  stamp  their  peculiarities  upon  the 
carelessly-bred  stock  they  were  selected  to  improve.3 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  1866,  p.  53. 

8  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  53,  54. 

3  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xxiii.,  p.  351. 


CROSS-BREEDING.  197 

The  male  must  not  only  possess  superior  merit  in 
his  general  characteristics,  but  he  must  have  the  essen- 
tial quality  of  prepotency  in  transmitting  them. 

One  difficulty  in  the  way  of  ingrafting  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  Cheviot  sheep  upon  the  Black-faced 
mountain-breed,  to  which  we  have  referred,  arose 
from  the  uniform  typical  characters  and  consequent 
prepotency  of  the  race  it  was  proposed  to  change. 

In  crossing  English  rams  upon  the  old-established 
breeds  of  France,  the  same  difficulties  were  experi- 
enced, viz.,  the  prepotency  of  the  French  stock,  and 
the  fact  that  the  English  breeds  were  not  adapted  to 
the  climate  and  system  of  management  they  were  sub- 
jected to  in  their  adopted  country. 

M.  Malingie-Nouel,  director  of  the  agricultural 
school  of  La  Charmoise,  has  given  his  experience  in 
establishing  the  Charmoise  breed,  from  which  we 
make  the  following  quotations : J 

"  When  an  English  ram  of  whatever  breed  is  put 
to  a  French  ewe,  in  which  term  I  include  the  mon- 
grel merinos,  the  lambs  present  the  following  results : 
Most  of  them  resemble  the  mother  more  than  the 
father ;  some  show  no  trace  of  the  father ;  a  very  few 
represent  equally  the  features  of  both.  Encouraged 
by  the  beauty  of  these  last,  one  preserves  carefully 
the  ewe-lambs  among  them,  and  when  they  are  old 
enough  puts  them  to  an  English  ram. 

"  The  products  of  the  second  cross,  having  seventy- 
five  per  cent,  of  English  blood,  are  generally  more 
like  the  father  than  the  mother,  resembling  him  in 

1  Translated  by  Mr.  Pusey,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society,  vol.  xiv.,  p.  214. 


198  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

shape  and  features.  The  fleece  also  has  an  English 
character. 

"  The  lambs  thrive,  wear  a  beautiful  appearance, 
and  complete  the  joy  of  the  breeder.  He  thinks  that 
he  has  achieved  a  new  cross-breed  insuring  great  im- 
provement, and  requiring  thenceforth  only  careful 
selection  to  perpetuate  by  propagation  among  them- 
selves the  qualities  which  he  has  in  view.  But  he  has 
reckoned  without  his  host.  For  no  sooner  are  the 
lambs  weaned,  than  their  strength,  their  vigor,  and 
their  beauty,  begin  to  decay  as  the  heat  of  our  sum- 
mer increases.  Instead  of  growing,  they  seem  to 
dwindle;  their  square  shapes  shrink;  they  become 
stunted;  and,  on  the  threshold  of  life,  put  on  the 
livery  of  old  age. 

"  A  violent  cold  in  the  head  completes  their  exhaus- 
tion. This  is  accompanied  with  a  copious  flow  of 
slimy  mucus  from  the  nostrils,  constant  sneezing,  and 
sometimes  cough.  At  last  the  constitution  gives  way, 
or,  if  the  animal  lasts  till  autumn,  the  malady  indeed 
ceases,  but  he  remains  stunted  for  life. 

"  The  time  lost  was  the  time  of  growth,  and  can- 
not be  recovered,  for  Nature  never  goes  backward. 
Henceforth  he  looks  like  a  foreigner  escaped  from 
the  mortal  influence  of  an  inhospitable  climate,  and 
remains  inferior  even  to  our  native  sheep,  which  at 
least  have  health  and  hardiness  in  their  favor.  The 
experiment  has  sometimes  been  tried  with  English 
rams  in  a  third  generation,  and  the  symptoms  above 
described  have  arisen  even  more  strongly  in  propor- 
tion to  the  stronger  admixture  of  English  blood." 

After  pointing  out  some  differences  observed  in 


CROSS-BREEDING.  199 

the  prepotency  of  several  English  breeds,  M.  Malin- 
gie-Nouel  says :  "  If  you  put  a  Leicester  ram,  a  'mixed 
New  Kent,1  or  a  Southdown  that  is  not  pure,  to  a 
pure  ewe  of  any  French  race,  very  little  English  char- 
acter is  impressed  on  the  offspring,  never  less  than 
when  the  ewe  is  a  pure  merino.  In  this  last  case,  it 
often  happens  that  you  can  see  no  difference  between 
lambs  that  are  Leicester-merinos,  Kent-merinos,  or 
Southdown-merinos,  and  another  lamb  of  the  same 
age  which  is  pure  merino.  In  compensation,  how- 
ever, for  this  feeble  influence  of  the  English  sire,  the 
lambs  of  such  first  crosses  have  no  more  difficulty 
than  French  lambs  in  getting  over  the  first  summer. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  same  ewes  are  put  to  very 
pure  rams  of  the  Southdown  or  New'  Kent  breed, 
the  English  character  is  more  marked  than  in  the 
former  cases. 

"  In  both  cases  the  offspring  is  reared  ;  for  lambs 
in  which  the  English  blood  does  not  exceed  one-half 
seem  to  be  reared  as  easily  as  pure  French  lambs. 
But,  then,  since  little  improvement  is  obtained,  one  is 
tempted  to  give  a  new  dose  of  English  blood — to  put 
the  Anglo-French  ewes  to  English  rams — whereupon 
the  disasters  described  are  sure  to  follow."  8 

After  discussing  the  causes  of  the  state  of  facts 
above  referred  to,  M.  Malingie-Nouel  proceeds  as  fol- 

1  The  New  Kent  breed  was  established  by  Richard  Goord,  from 
"  nine  ewes  and  one  ram  "  of  the  Romney  Marsh  breed,  and  a  few 
rams  obtained  of  Mr.  Wall.  They  were  deeply  in-bred,  and  like  the 
Southdowns  were  improved  without  crossing  (Journal  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society,  vol.  vi.,  p.  263). 

8  Loc,  cit.,  pp.  217,  218. 


200  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

lows :  "  It  appeared,  then,  that  in  order  to  untie  the 
Gordian  knot  whose  threads  I  have  traced,  inasmuch 
as  one  could  not  increase  the  purity  and  antiquity  of 
the  blood  of  the  rams,  one  must  diminish  the  resist- 
ing power,  namely,  the  purity  and  antiquity  of  the 
ewes.  With  a  view  to  this  new  experiment,  one 
must  procure  English  rams  of  the  purest  and  most 
ancient  race,  and  unite  with  them  French  ewes  of 
modern  breeds,  or  rather  of  mixed  blood  forming  no 
distinct  breed  at  all.  It  is  easier  than  one  might 
have  supposed  to  combine  these  conditions. 

"  On  the  one  hand,  I  selected  some  of  the  finest 
rams  of  the  E"ew  Kent  breed,  regenerated  by  Goord. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  find  in  France  many  border 
countries  lying  between  distinct  breeds,  in  which  dis- 
tricts it  is  easy  to  find  flocks  participating  in  the  two 
neighboring  races. 

"  Thus,  on  the  borders  of  Berry  and  La  Sologne, 
one  meets  with  flocks  originally  sprung  from  a  mixt- 
ure of  the  two  distinct  races  that  are  established  in 
those  two  provinces.  Among  these,  then,  I  chose 
such  animals  as  seemed  least  defective,  approaching, 
in  fact,  the  nearest  to,  or  rather  departing  the  least 
from,  the  form  which  I  wished  ultimately  to  produce. 
These  I  united  with  animals  of  another  mixed  breed, 
picking  out  the  best  I  could  find  on  the  borders  of 
La  Beauce  and  Touraine,  which  blended  the  Touran- 
gelle  and  native  merino  blood  of  those  other  two  dis- 
tricts. From  this  mixture  was  obtained  an  offspring 
combining  the  four  races  of  Berry,  Sologne,  Tou- 
raine, and  merino,  without  decided  character,  .  .  .  but 
possessing  the  advantage  of  being  used  to  our  climate 


CROSS-BREEDING.  201 

and  management,  and  bringing  to  bear  on  the  new 
breed  to  be  formed  an  influence  almost  annihilated 
by  the  multiplicity  of  its  component  elements.  Now, 
what  happens  when  one  puts  such  mixed-blood  ewes 
to  a  pure  New  Kent  ram  ? 

"  One  obtains  a  lamb  containing  fif  ty-hundredths 
of  the  purest  and  most  ancient  English  blood,  with 
twelve  and  a  half  hundredths  of  four  different  French 
races,  which  are  individually  lost  in  the  preponderance 
of  English  blood,  and  disappear  almost  entirely,  leav- 
ing the  improving  type  in  the  ascendant.  The  influ- 
ence, in  fact,  of  this  type  was  so  decided  and  so  pre- 
dominant that  all  the  lambs  produced  strikingly  re- 
sembled each  other,  and  even  Englishmen  took  them 
for  animals  of  their  own  country. 

"  But  what  was  still  more  decisive,  when  these 
young  ewes  and  rams  were  put  together,  they  pro- 
duced lambs  closely  resembling  themselves,  without 
any  marked  return  to  the  features  of  the  old  French 
races  from  which  the  grandmother  ewes  were  derived. 
Some  slight  traces  only  might  perhaps  be  detected 
here  and  there  by  an  experienced  eye.  Even  these, 
however,  soon  disappeared,  such  animals  as  showed 
them  being  carefully  weeded  out  of  the  breeding- 
flock."1 

Such  was  the  origin  of  the  Charmoise  breed  of 
sheep.8 

M.  Girou  "  supposed  that  he  would  more  speedily 
obtain  fine  wool  by  crossing  Roussillon  sheep  with 

1  Loc.  tit.,  pp.  220,  221. 
a  For  a  full  description  of  this  valuable  breed,  see  "  Encyclopedie 
Pratique  de  TAgriculteur,"  tome  x.,  p.  682. 


202  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Merino  rams,  than  by  uniting  the  Aveyron  breed  with 
the  same  rams,  but  he  was  disappointed. 

".The  Roussillon  race,  being  110  doubt  more  ancient 
and  possessed  of  greater  potency  (force  motrice)  than 
the  Aveyron  race,  offered  greater  resistance  than  the 
latter  to  the  influence  of  the  Merinos;  and,  after 
twenty-five  years  of  successive  crossing,  the  primitive 
characters  of  the  Eoussillons  still  appeared,  while  the 
crosses  of  the  Aveyron  race,  after  the  same  length  of 
time,  could  not  be  distinguished  from  the  Spanish 
sheep.  It  thus  appears  that  characters  long  estab- 
lished, and  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  consti- 
tution by  transmission  through  many  successive  gen- 
erations, give  to  a  race  or  breed  a  certain  fixity  of 
type — something  of  the  persistency  and  individuality 
of  a  species,  by  which  it  is  enabled  to  resist,  for  a 
length  of  time,  fusion  with  another  race,  and  continue 
to  reproduce  its  leading  characteristics."  * 

It  has  been  said  that  "  the  persons  who  chiefly  re- 
sort to  crossing  are  those  who  have,  up  to  the  present 
time,  kept  but  a  very  inferior  description  of  stock," a 
and  this  is,  without  doubt,  the  reason  why  cross- 
breeding has  been  found  to  be,  in  such  cases,  an  im- 
portant means  of  improvement. 

In  all  cases  in  which  cross-breeding  has  been  suc- 
cessfully practised,  the  object  in  view  has  been  pre- 
cisely the  same,  and  the  reasons  that  have  led  to  it  are 
identical  with  those  that  have  induced  the  improvers 
of  the  pure  breeds  to  resort  to  the  opposite  system  of 
in-and-in  breeding. 

1  Journal  of  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society,  185Y-'59,  p.  29. 
a  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xxiii.,  p.  352. 


CROSS-BREEDING.  203 

In  both  cases  the  practice  has  been  to  select  the 
best  male  it  was  possible  to  secure,  with  the  purpose 
of  impressing  his  superior  characteristics  upon,  the 
less-favored  individuals  of  the  flock  or  herd. 

The  rule  laid  down  by  George  Culley,  in  his  "  Ob- 
servations on  Live-Stock,"  has  apparently  been  fol- 
lowed by  the  advocates  of  both  of  the  so-called  "  sys- 
tems of  breeding,"  which  are  in  reality  but  parts  of 
the  one  true  method.  He  says :  "  It  is  certainly  from 
the  lest  males  and  females  that  the  best  breeds  can  be 
obtained  or  preserved ;  to  breed  in  this  manner  is  un- 
doubtedly right,  so  long  as  letter  males  can  be  met 
with,  not  only  among  our  neighbors,  but  also  among 
the  most  improved  breeds  in  any  part  of  the  island, 
or  from  any  part  of  the  world,  provided  the  expense 
does  not  exceed  the  proposed  advantage.  And  when 
you  can  no  longer,  at  home  or  abroad,  find  letter  males 
than  your  own,  then,  by  all  means,  breed  from  them — 
whether  horses,  neat-cattle,  sheep,  etc. — for  the  same 
rule  holds  good  through  every  species  of  domestic  ani- 
mals ;  but  upon  no  account  attempt  to  breed  or  cross 
from  worse  than  your  own,  for  that  would  be  acting 
in  contradiction  to  common-sense,  experience,  and  that 
well-established  rule,  that 4  best  only  can  beget  best.' " 1 

If  it  should  be  admitted  that  the  pure  breeds  were 
better  than  cross-bred  animals,  it  would  be  impossible 
for  every  one  to  obtain  them  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
stock  the  farm  exclusively  with  them ;  but,  as  well- 
bred  males  can  readily  be  procured,  the  greatest  im- 
provement in  the  mass  of  our  farm-stock  must  be 
made  by  a  system  of  judicious  crossing. 

1  "  Observations  on  Live-Stock,"  fourth  edition,  p.  12. 


204  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

The  breeding  of  "grades,"  which,  is  so  largely- 
practised  in  all  parts  of  this  country,  furnishes  a  good 
example  of  the  advantages  of  cross-breeding.  "What 
are  called  "  natives  "  here,  are  animals  of  mixed  blood 
without  any  fixed  characters,  and  they  are  therefore 
more  readily  influenced  by  a  cross  of  superior  blood 
than  the  local  unimproved  native  breeds  of  Europe, 
that  have  more  definite  characteristics. 

Earl  Spencer  has  remarked l  that  "  the  worse  bred 
the  female  is,"  the  greater  the  influence  of  a  well-bred 
male  upon  the  offspring,  and  this  accords  with  the 
observations  of  practical  men  generally. 

The  originator  of  the  Charmoise  breed  of  sheep, 
as  we  have  seen,  developed  the  prepotency  of  the 
English  rams  used,  by  mixing  the  blood  of  the  ewes 
of  several  native  races,  and  thus  destroying  in  them 
the  fixed  characters  that  had  previously  prevented  the 
predominance  of  the  desired  characteristics  of  the 
English  breeds. 

As  the  dominant  peculiarities  of  the  pure-bred 
animal  are  developed  by  a  system  of  rigorous  selec- 
tion and  in-breeding  in  a  certain  definite  direction, 
they  will  also  as  readily  disappear  and  become  latent, 
if  the  opposite  practice  of  cross-breeding  is  resorted 
to,  and  this  is  one  of  the  most  uniform  effects  of  this 
method  of  breeding. 

If  a  cross  of  two  distinct  breeds  is  effected  by  the 
selection  of  animals  of  equal  power  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  their  peculiar  characteristics,  the  tendency  is 
to  make  dominant  the  original  characters  that  the 
breeds  had  in  common,  and  to  obscure  the  special 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  i.,  p.  22. 


CROSS-BREEDING.  205 

characters  that  constituted  their  distinguishing  char- 
acteristics. 

The  greater  the  contrast  presented  in  the  two 
breeds,  and  the  greater  the  specialization  of  their  quali- 
ties through  the  development  of  artificial  characters, 
the  stronger  the  tendency  to  obscure  the  best  charac- 
ters of  each,  and  restore  the  original  type  from  which 
they  had  been  developed. 

In  such  cases  the  offspring  would  in  all  probability 
prove  to  be  inferior  in  quality,  from  the  inheritance 
of  the  defects  of  both  parents,  without  retaining  the 
most  desirable  characters  of  either. 

All  the  best  authorities  on  cross-breeding  agree 
that  it  should  not  be  practised  without  a  definite  ob- 
ject, on  account  of  this  tendency  to  the  development 
of  undesirable  variations. 

Mr.  Dickson  says :  "  I  object  to  promiscuous  cross- 
ing as  much  as  any  man.  It  is  to  this  injudicious  sys- 
tem that  may  be  traced  the  existence  of  so  many  mis- 
erable breeds  of  cattle  in  the  country."  1 

""We  may  start,  then,"  says  Mr.  Spooner,  "with 
this  principle,  that  to  cross  for  crossing  sake  is  decided- 
ly wrong  /  that,  unless  some  specific  purpose  is  sought 
for  by  crossing,  it  is  far  better  to  cultivate  a  pure 
breed." a 

Prof.  Tanner  remarks  that,  "  in  the  case  of  pure- 
bred animals,  there  should  be  no  opposing  influence 
to  weaken  the  hereditary  tendencies  of  the  offspring, 
but  on  the  other  hand  a  concurrent  and  sympathetic 
nature,  so  that  the  hereditary  character  may  be  con- 

1  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  vii.,  p.  508. 

2  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xx.,  p.  298. 


206  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

firmed  and  strengthened.  Anything  like  a  cross 
should  be  most  jealously  guarded  against,  as  introduc- 
ing a  conflict  of  influences  which  impairs  the  charac- 
ter of  the  race."  1 

Mr.  Wright,  in  discussing  this  subject,  says,  "  There 
is,  for  instance,  a  well-known  strain  of  Buff  Cochins, 
of  marked  excellence  in  every  point,  but  which  has  a 
strong  tendency  to  breed  a  white  feather  in  the  cock's 
tail. 

"  Now,  it  is  perfectly  possible,  by  a  judicious  cross 
from  some  other  strain,  and  careful  selection  afterward, 
to  get  rid  of  this  objectionable  feature ;  and  we  will 
suppose  an  individual  yard  in  which  this  has  been  so 
far  accomplished  that  in  only  a  small  proportion  does 
the  hated  white  feather  appear.  This  desired  result, 
with  a  little  care,  will  now  be  easily  maintained  while 
such  a  yard  is  bred  to  itself,  or  with  any  other  not  too 
far  removed  from  it  in  blood ;  but  if  crossed  from  a 
strain  thoroughly  distinct  and  alien,  or  what  poultry- 
men  call  too  "  sudden  "  a  cross  (for,  without  knowing 
the  reason,  they  have  found  the  evil  of  such  often,  and 
know  it  well),  the  old  white  feather  may  veiy  proba- 
bly reappear  in  all  its  original  strength,  though  the 
new  blood  contained  no  tendency  to  it  whatever.  It 
is  simply  the  cross  of  strange  blood  which  gives  the 
impulse  to  reversion.  In  the  same  way,  to  take  the 
case  mentioned  just  now,  the  pure  white  Spanish  face 
being  simply  the  result  of  assiduous  breeding,  and  the 
most  extreme  care  being  needed  for  its  preservation, 
the  simple  fact  of  crossing  two  entirely  distinct  strains 
gives  the  impulse  to  revert  to  the  red  face  which  be- 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society r,  vol.  xxii.,  p.  11. 


CKOSS-BREEDING.  207 

longed  to  the  Minorca — in  all  probability  the  original 
breed  from  which  it  was  derived." 

The  value  of  cross-bred  animals  for  breeding-pur- 
poses is  diminished  by  this  tendency  to  reversion,  and 
the  consequent  loss  of  the  power  of  transmitting  any 
definite  characters  to  their  offspring. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that,  in  the  cases  in  which 
improvements  are  effected  by  crossing,  the  greatest 
change  is  produced  by  the  first  cross,  and  that  the  im- 
provement resulting  from  a  repetition  of  the  process 
is  uniformly  slight. 

This  would  undoubtedly  be  the  case  from  the  prin- 
ciples already  presented :  the  greater  the  difference  be- 
tween the  two  parents,  when  one  of  them  is  prepotent 
in  the  transmission  of  its  characters,  the  greater  would 
be  the  resemblance  of  the  offspring  to  the  one,  and 
the  wider  the  divergence  from  the  characters  of  the 
other  parent ;  and,  as  the  resemblance  of  the  parents 
to  each  other  would  be  gradually  increased  by  succes- 
sive crosses,  the  difference  between  the  offspring  and 
the  inferior  parent  would  as  gradually  diminish 

It  is  claimed  that  the  tendency  to  develop  undesir- 
able characters  is  increased  by  each  successive  cross ; 2 
but  the  facts  relating  to  this  subject,  in  the  history  of 
the  breeds  that  have  been  established  by  crossing,  have 
not  been  recorded  with  sufficient  exactness  to  furnish 
conclusive  proof  of  the  correctness  of  this  opinion.  It 
does  not,  however,  appear  to  be  improbable  that  such 

1  "  Book  of  Poultry,"  p.  126. 

2  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xxiii.,  p.  352,  vol. 
xx.,  p.  296  ;  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  i.,  p.  178,  vol.  vii., 
p.  497 ;  Sinclair's  "  Code  of  Agriculture,"  p.  95. 


208  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

may  be  the  case,  from  the  fact  that  in  each  successive 
cross  the  relative  potency  of  the  pure-bred  male  would 
be  diminished,  as  the  females  to  which  he  is  bred  are 
improved  in  their  characters. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  might  seem  probable  that 
the  improvement  of  the  female  would  increase  the 
tendency  to  a  predominance  of  the  desired  characters, 
and  thus  intensify  the  influence  of  the  male  in  the 
further  improvement  of  the  family.  But  cross-bred 
animals  do  not,  as  a  rule,  transmit  to  their  offspring, 
as  dominant  characters,  the  peculiarities  that  they  have 
derived  from  a  superior  breed,  even  when  they  appear 
to  predominate  in  their  organization;  .. . 

When  both  parents  are  cross-bred  animals — even 
in  cases  in  which  they  both  resemble  the  superior  race 
from  which  they  have  derived  their  most  obvious 
characteristics — the  prevailing  tendency  in  their  pow- 
ers of  transmission  is  shown  in  the  frequent  recur- 
rence of  remote  ancestral  characters  in  their  offspring. 

In  attempts  to  establish  a  new  breed  by  crossing, 
this  tendency  to  atavic  transmission  can  only  be  over- 
come by  a  persistent  and  long-continued  system  of 
selection.  "  Changes,  in  fact,  by  crossing,  are  not  to 
be  effected  in  a  short  space  of  time ;  you  must  look 
forward  to  several  years  of  constant  exertion,  before 
you  can  hope,  in  this  manner,  to  alter  your  stock." 

Mr.  Hogg  says :  "  By  the  attempt  which  has  been 
made  to  renovate  the  Scottish  flocks  by  the  Cheviot 
blood,  we  see  the  unexpected  length  of  time  necessary 
for  completing  and  confirming  the  change. 

"  'No  class  of  animals  which  I  am  acquainted  with 

1  Blacklock  on  "Sheep,"  p.  115. 


CROSS-BREEDING.  209 

adhere  more  tenaciously  to  family  distinctions  than 
sheep,  and  the  longer  the  blood  has  been  kept  pure 
and  unmixed  with  that  of  another  family,  the  more 
powerfully  do  they  resist  a  foreign  connection ;  and 
in  the  case  under  our  immediate  consideration,  the 
opposition  to  a  coalition  of  natures  is  doubly  power- 
ful, as  it  is  a  forcing  of  the  creature  farther  from  a 
state  of  nature  into  one  more  artificial,  more  depend- 
ent, and  more  directly  under  the  management  of  man. 
.  .  .  After  a  course  of  twenty  or  twenty-five  years,  at 
which  period  the  Cheviot  peculiarities  are  got  tolera- 
bly well-established,  and  every  attribute  of  the  old 
race  seems  to  be  completely  suppressed,  an  individual 
lamb  will,  in  some  generations,  still  exhibit  the  wild 
air  and  shaggy  coat  of  the  ancient  maternal  line."  * 

Sir  John  Sinclair  remarks  that,  "  as  to  any  attempt 
at  improvement  by  crossing  two  distinct  breeds  or 
races,  one  of  which  possesses  the  properties  which  it 
is  wished  to  obtain,  or  is  free  from  the  defects  which 
it  is  desirable  to  remove,  it  requires  a  degree  of  judg- 
ment and  perseverance  to  render  such  a  plan  success- 
ful as  is  very  rarely  to  be  met  with."  a 

In  summing  up  the  arguments  in  favor  of  cross- 
breeding, Mr.  Spooner  says :  "  Although  the  benefits 
are  most  evident  in  the  first  cross,  after  which,  from 
pairing  the  cross-bred  animals,  the  defects  of  one  breed 
or  the  other,  or  the  incongruities  of  both,  are  perpet- 
ually breaking  out,  yet,  unless  the  characteristics  and 
conformation  of  the  two  breeds  are  altogether  averse 
to  each  other,  Nature  opposes  no  barrier  to  their  suc- 

1  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  i.,  pp.  176-179. 
8  "  Code  of  Agriculture,"  p.  95. 
10 


210  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

cessful  admixture ;  so  that,  in  the  course  of  time,  by 
the  aid  of  selection  and  careful  weeding,  it  is  practi- 
cable to  establish  a  new  breed  altogether.1  .  .  .  Let  us 
conclude,"  he  then  says,  "by  repeating  the  advice 
that,  when  equal  advantages  can  be  attained  by  keep- 
ing a  pure  breed  of  sheep,  such  pure  breed  should 
unquestionably  be  preferred ;  and  that,  although  cross- 
ing for  the  purposes  of  the  butcher  may  be  practised 
with  impunity,  and  even  with  advantage,  yet  no  one 
should  do  so  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  new 
breed,  unless  he  has  clear  and  well-defined  views  of 
the  object  he  seeks  to  accomplish,  and  has  duly  stud- 
ied the  principles  on  which  it  can  be  carried  out,  and 
is  determined  to  bestow  for  the  space  of  half  a  life- 
time his  constant  and  unremitting  attention  to  the 
discovery  and  removal  of  defects."  a 

From  the  variety  of  improved  breeds  that  can  now 
be  obtained,  adapted  to  almost  every  variety  of  climate 
and  system  of  management,  it  cannot  be  desirable  to 
attempt  the  formation  of  a  new  breed,  as  any  special 
qualities  that  may  be  required  under  particular  cir- 
cumstances can  be  more  readily  obtained  by  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  characteristics  of  some  existing  breed 
that  approximates  in  its  qualities  to  the  proposed 
standard. 

As  cross-breeding  among  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine, 
can  only  be  recommended  for  the  production  of  ani- 
mals intended  for  the  butcher,  it  may  be  well  to  con- 
sider some  of  the  advantages  arising  from  its  judicious 
practice  for  this  purpose. 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xx.,  p.  311. 
3  Loc.  cit.,  p.  813. 


CROSS-BREEDING.  211 

A  large  proportion  of  our  farm-stock,  for  a  long 
time  to  come,  must  necessarily  consist  of  the  so-called 
"  natives  "  and  the  grades  that  have  been  produced 
from  them  by  various  crosses.  These  animals  have 
the  advantage  of  hardiness,  but  they  are  not  good 
feeders,  and  do  not  arrive  at  maturity  at  as  early  an 
age  as  the  modern  pure  breeds.  When  crossed  with 
the  best  of  the  meat-producing  breeds,  they  are  at 
once  improved  in  these  important  qualities  in  which 
they  were  before  deficient,  while  in  the  quality  of 
their  flesh  they  may  be  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the 
more  highly-bred  animals  of  the  pure  breeds. 

In  the  pure  breeds  in  which  the  fattening  qualities 
have  been  highly  developed,  an  excessive  activity  of 
the  formation  of  fat  may  be  readily  induced,  in  con- 
nection with  a  deficiency  in  lean  flesh  that  diminishes 
the  real  value  of  the  animal  when  it  reaches  its  final 
destination  on  the  block.  The  value  of  such  animals 
consists  in  their  ability  to  transmit  to  their  offspring 
their  general  form,  with  the  tendency  to  mature  early 
and  fatten  rapidly. 

When  such  animals  are  crossed  upon  natives  or 
grades  of  inferior  quality,  it  is  not  surprising  to  see 
in  their  offspring  a  quality  of  flesh  that  in  its  propor- 
ions  of  lean  and  fat  is  superior  to  that  of  either  par- 
t. 

In  speaking  of  a  cross  of  the  Lincoln  and  Leices- 
r  sheep,  Mr.  Mosscrop  says  :  "  The  cross  improves 
the  size,  the  quantity  of  wool,  and  the  quality  of  the 
mutton,  although  perhaps  the  distinguishing  feature 
of  the  pure-bred  Leicester — propensity  to  fatten  at 
an  early  age — is  somewhat  impaired. 


212  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

"  The  greater  admixture  of  lean  mutton,  however, 
more  than  compensates  for  this,  by  giving  a  superior 
value  to  the  carcass."  l 

In  the  cross  of  a  superior  breed  upon  the  average 
stock  of  the  farm,  the  best  results  can  only  be  ob- 
tained by  a  better  system  of  feeding  than  the  original 
stock  had  been  accustomed  to.  The  old  Scotch  say- 
ing, that  "  the  breed  is  in  the  mouth,"  expresses  an 
important  truth  in  stock  management. 

An  increase  in  size  and  the  ability  to  fatten  rapid- 
ly would  become  a  source  of  weakness  rather  than  an 
advantage  in  animals  that  are  unable  to  obtain  a  suf- 
ficient supply  of  food  to  give  a  full  and  active  devel- 
opment of  the  system. 

With  every  improvement  in  "blood"  a  corre- 
sponding improvement  in  feeding  and  management 
must  be  made,  or  Nature  will  surely  thwart  our  plans 
by  asserting  her  supremacy,  and  adapting  the  animal 
to  the  conditions  in  which  it  is  placed.  . 

It  seems  to  be  the  prevailing  opinion  that  the  cross 
of  a  large  male  upon  the  females  of  a  small  breed  is 
not  advisable,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  parturi- 
tion which,  it  is  presumed,  would  arise  from  the  dis- 
proportionate size  of  the  offspring. 

This  belief  must  be  founded  on  theoretical  consid- 
erations only,  as  difficulties  of  the  kind  do  not  often 
occur  in  actual  practice.  After  an  extended  experi- 
ence during  the  past  ten  years,  in  crossing  rams  of 
the  Cotswold,  Lincoln,  and  Southdown  breeds  on  com- 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  1866,  p.  329.  For  the 
advantages  of  crossing  pure-bred  and  common  swine,  see  Harris  on 
"The  Pig,"  p.  36. 


,. 

sei 


CROSS-BREEDING.  213 

mon-grade  merino  ewes,  I  have  failed  to  meet  with  a 
single  instance  of  difficult  labor  arising  from  such 
influence. 

In  many  instances,  for  the  sake  of  experiment, 
the  smallest  ewes  were  selected  for  crossing  with  the 
largest  rams,  but  in  no  case  was  the  labor  unusually 
severe  or  protracted. 

In  establishing  the  "  Charmoise  "  breed  of  sheep, 
M.  Malingie-Nouel  tell  us  that  he  frequently  bred 
his  mixed-blood  ewes,  that  did  not  weigh  more  than 
twenty-five  kilogrammes,  to  rams  of  the  New  Kent 
breed  that  weighed  over  one  hundred  kilogrammes, 
and  that,  in  over  two  thousand  cases  of  such  contrast 
in  the  parents,  he  observed  but  a  single  "  accident " 
from  the  disproportionate  size  of  the  lambs.1 

The  size  of  the  young  animal  at  the  time  of  birth 
is  evidently  determined  by  the  dam,  while  its  devel- 
opment after  birth  may  be  influenced  by  the  inherited 
qualities  of  either  parent. 

In  the  vicinity  of  large  towns  a  peculiar  system 
of  cross-breeding  is  successfully  practised  in  produc- 
ing early  lambs  for  the  market. 

Pure-bred  rams  of  any  of  the  improved  English 
breeds  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  the  South- 
downs,  from  their  superior  quality  of  flesh,  are  gener- 
ally preferred. 

As  the  rapid  growth  and  development  of  the 
mbs  is  of  the  first  importance,  the  ewes,  which  are 
selected  from  common-grade  flocks,  should  be  strong 
.d  healthy,  although  perhaps  in  low  flesh,  and,  above 
all,  good  milkers. 

1  "  Encyclopedic  pratique  de  1'Agriculteur,"  vol.  x.,  p.  595. 


214  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING 

After  the  lambs  are  yeaned — about  the  first  of 
March — the  ewes  should  receive  a  liberal  ration  of 
grain  and  roots,  to  promote  the  secretion  of  milk,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  improve  their  condition  in  flesh. 
At  the  age  of  two  or  three  weeks  the  lambs  will  learn 
to  eat  meal  and  turnips,  which  should  be  placed  in 
boxes  to  which  they  have  ready  access,  in  pens  that 
their  dams  cannot  enter. 

With  good  shelter,  which  must  of  course  be  pro- 
vided, and  a  system  of  high  feeding,  the  lambs  are 
ready  for  the  market  when  from  seven  to  ten  weeks 
old,  the  highest  prices  being  paid  for  the  earliest  lots. 

If  not  too  late  in  the  season,  from  four  to  five  dol- 
lars per  head  can  be  obtained  for  good  ones,  while  in- 
ferior or  late  lots  are  sold  at  much  lower  prices. 

After  the  lambs  are  sold,  the  ewes  are  fattened 
and  sold  for  mutton,  soon  after  shearing. 

With  the  exception  of  the  pure-bred  ram,  the  en- 
tire flock  is  thus  disposed  of  before  the  close  of  the 
year,  the  ewes  frequently  bringing  one  dollar  per  head 
more  than  their  original  cost.1 

A  new  flock  of  ewes  may  then  be  procured,  and 
the  same  method  repeated. 

The  essentials  of  success  in  this  method  of  man- 
agement are,  a  high-bred  ram  that  can  impress  upon 
his  offspring  the  ability  to  mature  early,  high  feeding 
to  secure  the  greatest  possible  activity  of  this  inherited 
tendency,  and  good  shelter. 

1  For  details  of  Mr.  Taylor's  system  of  management,  see  The  Culti- 
vator, 1862,  pp.  77,  160,  174. 


CHAPTER  XL 

EELATIVE   INFLUENCE   OF   PARENTS. 

THEEE  are  many  theories  in  regard  to  the  relative 
influence  of  parents  upon  their  offspring,  some  of 
which,  without  sufficient  reason,  have  been  quite  gen- 
erally accepted  as  established  physiological  truths. 
The  Highland  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  in 
1825,  awarded  prizes  to  four  essays 1  on  this  subject, 
that  were  presented  for  competition. 

In  the  first  volume  of  "  Transactions  "  of  the  soci- 
ety, Mr.  BoswelPs  essay  is  published  in  full,  while  ab- 
stracts only  of  the  others  are  given. 

Mr.  Christian  claims  that  "  any  hypothesis  which 
would  assign  a  superiority,  or  set  limits  to  the  influ- 
ence of  either  sex  in  the  product  of  generation,  is  un- 
sound and  inadmissible."  His  essay  is  but  briefly 
noticed,  yet,  so  far  as  the  influence  of  sex  alone  is 
concerned,  his  position  has  not  been  successfully  con- 
troverted. The  theory  advanced  by  Mr.  Boswell, 

1  These  essays  were  written  by  John  Boswell,  Rev.  Henry  Berry, 
Mr.  Christian,  and  H.  N.  Dallas,  in  answer  to  the  following  question, 
which  was  presented  by  the  society  for  discussior :  "  Whether  the 
breed  of  live-stock  connected  with  agriculture  be  susceptible  of  the 
greatest  improvement  from  the  qualities  conspicuous  in  the  male,  or 
from  those  conspicuous  in  the  female  parent  ?  "  ("  Transactions  of  the 
Highland  Agricultural  Society,"  vol.  i.,  p.  17). 


216  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

that  the  male  had  the  greatest  influence  in  determin- 
ing the  characters  of  the  offspring,  became  quite 
popular,  from  the  apparent  indorsement  it  received 
by  the  society,  as  it  was  the  only  one  of  the  prize 
essays  that  was  published  in  full. 

As  the  cases  cited  by  Mr.  Boswell  in  proof  of  his 
theory  are,  almost  without  exception,  susceptible  of  a 
different  interpretation,  the  males  used  being  more 
highly  bred  than  the  females,  and  therefore  likely  to 
be  prepotent  in  the  transmission  of  their  qualities,  his 
conclusions  as  to  the  superior  influence  of  the  male 
are  not  sustained  by  the  evidence  presented.  More- 
over, we  find  on  record  a  large  number  of  as  striking 
instances  of  the  resemblance  of  the  offspring  to  the 
female  parent,  which,  in  themselves,  must  be  fatal  to 
the  theory. 

In  the  essay  by  Mr.  Berry,  a  preponderance  of  the 
influence  of  either  parent  on  account  of  sex  is  denied. 
The  best-bred  animal,  however,  is  believed  to  have 
the  greatest  influence  in  determining  the  peculiarities 
of  the  offspring.  Of  the  instances  given  by  Mr.  Berry 
to  illustrate  his  position,  the  following  are  quoted  on 
account  of  their  bearing  upon  the  theory  of  Mr.  Bos- 
well,  already  noticed  :  "  The  writer,"  says  Mr.  Berry, 
"  has  been  for  some  years  in  possession  of  an  improved 
breed  of  pigs,  which  are  chiefly  of  a  sandy  or  brown 
color.  His  sows  of  this  breed  crossed  with  common 
boars  almost  invariably  produce  litters  of  pigs  of  their 
own  color.  At  the  present  moment  he  has  a  litter  of 
eleven  pigs  from  a  brown  sow  of  the  improved  breed, 
by  a  black-and-white  boar  of  the  common  breed. 
The  young  pigs  possess  all  the  characteristics  of  the 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  217 

dam,  and  are  of  precisely  the  same  color.  In  litters 
of  pigs  got  by  the  improved  boars  from  country  sows, 
the  color  of  the  improved  race  also  predominates  in  a 
similar  manner.  ... 

"  The  writer's  brother  was  lately  in  possession  of 
well-bred  pigs,  the  most  striking  characteristic  of 
which  was  a  short,  pricked  ear.  The  produce  of  these 
with  the  large  pendent-eared  swine  of  North  Wales 
was  invariably  similar  in  the  ear  to  the  higher-bred 
animal,  whether  male  or  female." 1  The  number  of 
cases  in  which  the  offspring  resembles  the  male  are 
undoubtedly  more  numerous  than  the  cases  of  resem- 
blance to  the  female,  for  the  obvious  reason  that  the 
males  selected  for  breeding  are,  as  a  rule,  more  highly 
bred  than  the  females  with  which  they  are  coupled, 
and  they  have  also  more  numerous  offspring  from 
which  the  cases  of  resemblance  are  selected. 

Those  who  overlook  this  fact,  as  is  evidently  the 
case  with  Mr.  Boswell,  fall  into  the  error  of  attribut- 
ing the  greater  number  of  observed  resemblances  of 
offspring  to  the  male  parent  to  a  predominating  influ- 
ence of  sex. 

The  importance  of  securing  males  of  the  best 
quality,  that  from  their  superior  breeding  will  be 
likely  to  be  prepotent  in  the  transmission  of  their 
characteristics,  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  as  one  of 
the  readiest  means  of  improvement. 

.  "  It  is  generally  admitted  as  a  fact  proved,  that  in 
the  ox,  horse,  and  other  domestic  animals,  the  purer 
or  less  mixed  the  breed  is,  there  is  the  greater  proba- 
bility of  its  transmitting  to  the  offspring  the  "qualities 

1  "  Transactions  of  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society,"  vol.  L,  p.  41. 


218  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

it  possesses,  whether  these  be  good  or  bad.  Economi- 
cal purposes  have  made  the  male  in  general  the  most 
important,  simply  because  he  serves  for  a  considerable 
number  of  females. 

"  The  consequence  of  this  has  been  that  more  at- 
tention has  been  paid  to  the  blood  or  purity  of  race 
of  the  stallion,  bull,  ram,  and  boar,  than  to  that  of  the 
females;  and  hence  it  may  be  the  case  that  these 
males  more  frequently  transmit  their  qualities  to  the 
offspring  than  do  the  inferior  females  with  which 
they  are  often  made  to  breed.  But  this  circumstance 
can  scarcely  be  adduced  as  a  proof  that  the  male, 
cceteris  paribus,  influences  the  offspring  more  than 
the  female."1 

Notwithstanding  the  predominant  influence  of  the 
"  best-bred  "  parent  is  the  rule,  the  intensity  of  other 
conditions,  in  many  cases,  interferes  and  produces  un- 
expected variations.  If  high  breeding  has  been  prac- 
tised with  reference  to  a  single  quality  only,  as,  for 
instance,  speed  in  the  horse,  and  the  qualities  that 
give  strength  and  constitution  are  neglected,  the  one- 
sided development  of  the  animal  may  produce  an  un- 
stable condition  of  the  organization  that  is  not  favor- 
able to  uniformity  in  the  transmission  of  the  single 
character  it  is  proposed  to  perpetuate. 

Stonehenge,  in  noticing  such  exceptions  to  the 
general  rule,  says :  "  My  own  belief  in  this  matter, 
founded  upon  observations  made  during  a  long  series 
of  years,  on  the  horse  as  well  as  the  dog,  is,  that  ho 
rule  can  be  laid  down  with  any  certainty.  Much 

1  Dr.  Allen  Thompson,  article  "  Generation,"  in  "  Cyclopaedia  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  472. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  219 

depends  upon  the  comparative  physical  power  and 
strength  of  constitution  in  each  parent — even  more, 
perhaps,  than  the  composition  of  the  blood. 

"  There  have  been  many  instances  of  two  brothers 
being  used  in  the  stud,  both  among  horses  and  grey- 
hounds, in  which  one  has  almost  invariably  got  his 
stock  resembling  himself,  in  all  particulars,  not  even 
excluding  color,  while  the  descendants  of  the  other 
have  rarely  been  recognizable  as  his.  Thus  among 
horses  the  Touchstones  have  been  mostly  brown  or 
dark  bay,  and  as  a  lot  have  shown  a  high  form  as 
race-horses ;  while  the  Launcelots  have  been  of  all 
colors,  and  have  been  below  mediocrity  on  the  turf.1 
Several  examples  of  the  same  nature  may  be  quoted 
from  among  greyhounds,  such  as  Ranter,  Gipsey 
Prince,  and  Gipsey  Royal,  three  brothers  whose  stock 
was  as  different  as  possible,  but  the  fact  is  so  gener- 
ally recognized  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon 
it. 

"  Now,  surely  this  difference  in  the  power  of  trans- 
mitting the  likeness  of  the  sire,  when  the  blood  is  ex- 
actly the  same  as  it  is  observed  to  extend  over  large 
numbers,  can  only  depend  upon  a  variation  in  indi- 
vidual power.  Not  only  does  this  apply  to  the  males, 
but  the  females  also  show  the  same  difference."  a 

After  citing  several  other  instances  of  such  varia- 
tions, Stonehenge  concludes  by  recommending  breed- 
ers to  be  guided  by  his  thirteenth  axiom,  which  is  as 
follows :  "  The  purer  or  less  mixed  the  breed,  the 
more  likely  it  is  to  be  transmitted  unaltered  to  the 

1  Touchstone  and  Launcelot  were  full  brothers. 

2  "  The  Horse,"  by  Stonehenge,  p.  147. 


220  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

offspring.  Hence,  whichever  parent  is  of  the  purest 
blood  will  be  generally  more  represented  in  the  off- 
spring; but,  as  the  male  is  usually  more  carefully 
selected,  and  of  purer  blood  than  the  female,  it  gen- 
erally follows  that  he  exerts  more  influence  than  she 
does ;  the  reverse  being  the  case  when  she  is  of  more 
unmixed  blood  than  the  sire."  1 

Stonehenge  is  undoubtedly  correct  in  the  opinion 
that  this  axiom,  on  the  whole,  is  the  safest  guide  to 
the  breeder  in  making  his  selection  of  animals  with 
reference  to  the  relative  potency  that  may  be  expected 
in  the  parents.  The  cases  that  he  cites  of  full  broth- 
ers transmitting  different  characters  to  their  offspring, 
may  be  readily  explained  in  accordance  with  princi- 
ples that  have  already  been  presented,  and  it  is,  there- 
fore, unnecessary  to  assume  that  they  form  exceptions 
to  the  general  rule  that  the  best-bred  parent  has  the 
greatest  influence  upon  the  apparent  characteristics  of 
the  offspring. 

An  examination  of  the  pedigrees  of  the  animals 
in  question  will  show  that  several  sub-families  of  the 
breed  are  represented  in  their  ancestry,  and  we  might 
reasonably  expect  that  full  brothers  would  inherit 
their  leading  characteristics  from  different  branches 
of  the  family  tree,  which  they  in  turn  might  trans- 
mit to  their  offspring. 

A  long  course  of  breeding  in  the  same  definite 
direction,  or  within  the  limits  of  the  same  family, 
would  be  required  to  secure  uniformity  in  the  domi- 
nant characters  transmitted  by  animals  closely  related. 

1  Loc.  ciL,  p.  139.     Sec  also  Journal  of  tJie  Roycd  Agricultural  &>- 
^  vol.  xxii.,  p.  9,  and  vol.  i.,  p.  24.  « 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  221 

M.  Girou  believed  that  the  relative  age  and  vigor 
of  the  parents  determined  their  relative  influence  in 
moulding  the  characters  of  their  offspring,  and  Stone- 
henge,  in  the  paragraph  above  quoted,  appears  to  be 
inclined  to  accept  the  theory  as  at  least  a  plausible 
one.  "When  all  other  conditions  are  equal,  it  may  be 
true  that  the  relative  strength  of  constitution  and 
physical  vigor  of  the  parents  may,  to  some  extent, 
determine  their  relative  influence  upon  the  dominant 
characters  of  their  offspring,  but  there  is  no  evidence 
that  such  influence  is  sufficiently  intense  to  counteract 
or  overcome,  in  all  cases,  the  other  causes  of  heredi- 
tary transmission.  I  have  frequently  observed  in- 
stances of  animals  decidedly  deficient  in  strength  and 
vigor  that  were  prepotent,  even  when  coupled  with 
those  that  were  remarkable  for  their  high  constitu- 
tional development. 

It  cannot  be  doubted,  however,  that  in  cases  of 
marked  immaturity,  or  of  an  impaired  condition  of 
the  system  from  extreme  old  age,  the  powers  of  trans- 
mission are  less  strongly  marked  than  they  are  in  the 
meridian  of  health  and  development ;  but  these  are 
extreme  cases,  that  cannot  be  relied  upon  as  indicating 
the  normal  laws  of  the  function  of  reproduction. 

The  excessive  use  of  the  male  impairs  his  powers 
of  procreation,  and  undoubtedly  diminishes  the  pa- 
tency with  which  he  transmits  his  qualities.1 

"When  there  is  no  marked  prepotency  on  the  part 
of  either  parent,  the  male  offspring  frequently  resem- 
ble the  father  and  the  female  resemble  the  mother.3 

1  "  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Report,"  1860,  p.  172. 

2  Colin's  "Physiologic  comparee,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  635;  Journal  of  tlw 


222  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

This  is  often  the  case  in  the  transmission  of  dis- 
ease, as  has  already  been  noticed  in  the  chapter  on 
hereditary  diseases.  Of  two  hundred  and  fourteen 
cases  of  consumption  recorded  by  Lugol,  one  hundred 
and  six  were  males  and  one  hundred  and  eight  fe- 
males ;  of  these,  sixty-three  males  inherited  the  disease 
from  their  fathers  and  forty-three  from  their  mothers : 
and  sixty-one  females  inherited  the  disease  from  their 
mothers  and  forty-seven  from  their  fathers. 

Phillips  gives  the  history  of  two  hundred  and 
sixty-four  cases  of  insanity,  from  which  we  learn 
that,  of  one  hundred  and  seventeen  males,  sixty-four 
inherited  the  disease  from  their  fathers  and  fifty-three 
from  their  mothers ;  of  one  hundred  and  forty-seven 
females,  eighty  inherited  the  disease  from  their  moth- 
ers and  sixty-seven  from  their  fathers.1 

The  peculiar  horny  excrescence  on  the  skin  of  the 
porcupine-men  (Lambert  family),  that  was  transmitted 
for  several  generations,  was  limited  to  the  males  of  the 
family.3 

The  following  case  is  reported  by  Dr.  Stewart :  "  A 
single  man  aged  twenty-four  years,  and  the  eldest  son 
of  a  family  consisting  of  two  sons  and  two  daughters, 
has  well-marked  pityriasis  versicolor  (a  disease  of  the 
skin)  affecting  his  chest,  back,  and  arms,  and  which 
was  first  observed  when  he  was  about  fourteen  years 
of  age ;  his  brother,  twenty  years  of  age,  now  has 

Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xvi.,  pp.  21-35;  Ribot  on  "Heredity," 
p.  2 ;  Darwin's  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii., 
p.  93. 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xvi.,  pp.  21,  35. 

2  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  April,  1861,  p. 
246. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE   OF  PARENTS.  223 

it,  though  not  to  the  same  extent ;  and  his  father,  pa- 
ternal uncles,  paternal  grandfather,  and  seven  male 
cousins  on  the  paternal  side,  have  all  been  similarly 
affected ;  the  disease,  strictly  limited  to  the  males,  usu- 
ally appeared  in  all  of  them  at  puberty,  and  disap- 
peared about  the  age  of  forty  or  forty-five  years ;  while 
the  females  of  the  family,  although  not  suffering  from 
it  themselves,  have  transmitted  it  to  their  male  chil- 
dren. Atavism  through  the  opposite  sex  occurred 
when  females  intervened  to  check  its  direct  transmis- 
sion to  males."  ] 

This  disease  of  the  skin  is  not,  however,  confined  to 
males,  and  cases  are  recorded  in  which  it  has  been  lim- 
ited in  a  family  to  females.  Mr.  Sedgwick,  in  his  re- 
marks on  color-blindness,  says :  "  An  analysis  of  upward 
of  two  hundred  cases  shows  that  the  proportion  of 
males  affected  is  nine-tenths  of  the  whole.  But  as  I 
had  occasion  to  state  with  reference  to  the  same  point 
in  ichthyosis,  this  apparent  preference  for  the  male 
sex  is  not  due  to  any  peculiar  inaptitude  in  the  female 
sex  to  the  defect ;  for  when  it  has  primarily  affected 
the  latter,  its  sexual  limitation  is  complete,  as  in  the 
interesting  case  published  by  Mr.  Cunier,  where  the 
defect  occurred  in  thirteen  individuals  belonging  to 
five  generations  of  one  family,  all  of  whom  were  fe- 
males." 2 

Ribot  remarks  that  "  the  resemblance  between  par- 
ents and  children  may  undergo  such  metamorphoses 
as  shall  cause  the  child  to  resemble  at  one  time  the 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  April,  1863,  p.  449. 
8  Ibid.,  April,  1861,  p.  253 ;  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiol- 
ogy," vol.  iv.,  p.  1454. 


224:  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

father,  and  at  another  the  mother.  Girou  de  Buza- 
reingues,  in  his  work  '  De  la  Generation,'  containing 
some  curious  facts  observed  by  him,  tells  us  that  he 
knew  two  brothers  wiio  in  early  life  resembled  their 
mother,  while  the  sister  resembled  the  father. 

"  These  resemblances  were  such  as  to  strike  all  who 
saw  them.  <  But  now,'  says  he,  '  and  ever  since  their 
youth,  the  two  boys  resemble  the  father,  while  the 
daughter  has  ceased  to  be  like  him.' "  * 

Cases  not  unfrequently  occur  in  which  the  disease 
or  defect  is  limited  to  one  sex  and  transmitted  by  the 
other,  as  in  the  case  of  ichthyosis  above  noticed. 

"  In  the  following  cases  of  sebaceous  tumors  of  the 
scalp,  which  occurred  in  the  practice  of  Dr.  Henry 
Stewart,  and  which  were  hereditarily  limited  to  the 
female  sex,  in  the  first  case  for  ten  and  in  the  second 
case  for  five  generations,  it  will  be  observed  that  in 
the  first  case  limitation  by  age  as  well  as  by  sex  oc- 
curred, and  also  that  some  of  the  females  derived  the 
inheritance  from  their  paternal  grandmother  by  atavic 
descent,  which  affords  an  additional  proof  of  the  influ- 
ence of  sex,  for,  except  when  a  male  thus  intervened  to 
arrest  the  appearance  of  the  disease,  the  inheritance 
was  direct  from  parent  to  child.  .  .  . 

"  The  wife  of  a  painter,  aged  fifty-four  years,  has 
thirty-three  sebaceous  tumors  of  the  scalp,  none  of 
which  are  larger  than  a  walnut ;  but  thirteen  years  ago 
nine  sebaceous  tumors,  varying  in  size  from  a  nutmeg 
to  a  small  orange,  were  excised  by  the  late  Mr.  Mor- 
ton, with  considerable  relief  to  the  severe  headaches 
she  had  previously  suffered  from ;  her  daughter  and 
'Ribot  on  "Heredity,"  p.  3. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  225 

her  granddaughter  are  both  affected  by  them,  her 
sons  are  perfectly  free;  her  brothers'  daughters  are 
troubled  with  them,  as  well  as  several  female  cousins 
of  different  degrees  of  relationship ;  her  mother, 
grandmother  and  female  relations  backward  for  seven 
generations,  were  similarly  affected;  no  female  who 
had  attained  her  tenth  year  of  age  was  without  them, 
while  none  of  the  males  in  the  family  had  ever  had 
them.  .  .  . 

"  A  single  woman  aged  thirty  years,  the  only  child 
of  her  parents,  and  suffering  from  phthisis  in  the  sec- 
ond stage,  which  she  has  inherited  from  her  mother's 
family,  has  ten  sebaceous  tumors  on  the  scalp,  varying 
in  size  from  a  nutmeg  to  a  pea,  and  which  were  first 
observed  when  she  was  about  fifteen  years  of  age ;  these 
tumors  have  been  common  to  the  females  of  her  moth- 
er's family — her  mother,  maternal  grandmother,  ma- 
ternal great-grandmother,  and  maternal  great-great- 
grandmother,  all  had  them,  and  so  likewise  have  sev- 
eral female  cousins  on  the  mother's  side  of  the  first 
and  second  degrees  of  relationship ;  all  the  females, 
but  none  of  the  males  in  the  family  have  suffered 
from  them." 

Mr.  Sedgwick  also  reports  a  case  of  warts  on  the 
hands  of  the  mother  during  childhood  (they  disap- 
peared after  puberty),  that  were  transmitted  to  her 
three  daughters,  while  her  two  sons  were  exempt. 

"  In  the  report  of  hereditary  malformation  of  the 
hands,  affecting  ten  generations  of  the  same  family,  it 
is  stated  that '  it  was  the  women  only  who  had  the 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review^  April,  1863,  pp. 
450,  451. 


226  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

.misfortune  of  entailing  the  defect  on  their  off- 
spring.' " 1 

A  case  of  cleft  iris  (which  is  the  analogue  of  hare- 
lip) is  recorded  by  Mr.  Sedgwick,  who  sums  up  the 
details  as  follows :  "  The  chief  points  of  interest  in 
the  case  are — 1.  The  transmission  of  the  defect  with- 
out its  being  shared  in  by  the  mother ;  2.  That,  while 
two  of  her  three  sons  had  the  defect,  her  three  daugh- 
ters were  free  from  it ;  and,  lastly,  that  the  maternal 
grandfather,  the  maternal  grand-uncle,  the  maternal 
uncle,  and  the  son  of  this  last  named,  all  shared  in  the 
defect,  which  shows  that  the  inheritance  in  this  case 
extended  to  at  least  four  generations." a 

According  to  Mr.  Wilde,  "  In  a  family  of  thirteen, 
in  the  county  of  Sligo,  mute  twins  occurred  twice,  be- 
ing the  seventh  and  eighth  births :  in  the  former  both 
children  were  mute  females ;  in  the  latter,  a  male  and 
female,  the  boy  not  mute.  Of  the  entire  thirteen 
births  in  that  family,  five  were  males,  none  of  whom 
presented  any  defect;  and  eight  were  females,  of 
whom  seven  were  deaf  and  dumb ;  the  order  of  the 
birth  of  the  mutes  being  the  third,  fourth,  fifth, 
eighth,  ninth,  and  eleventh."  The  same  author 
states  that  "  the  proportion  of  sexes  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb  in  England  and  Wales,  where  one  in  1,738  of 
the  inhabitants  was  affected,  is  100  males  to  82.9  fe- 
males ;  in  Scotland,  where  one  in  1,340  of  the  inhab- 

1  Edinburgh  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  vol.  iv.,  p.  252,  180S,  as 
quoted  in  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Cldrurgical  Review,  July,  1S61, 
p.  148,  note. 

*  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  April,  1861,  p. 
249. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  227 

itants  was  affected,  is  100  males  to  80.0  females ;  in 
Ireland,  where  one  in  1,380  of  the  inhabitants  was 
affected,  is  100  males  to  Y4.5  females ;  in  Prussia, 
where  one  in  1,360  of  the  inhabitants  was  affected,  is 
100  males  to  78.0  females — the  last  statement  being 
taken  from  M.  Baudin's  statistics." J 

Mr.  Sedgwick  reports  a  case  of  chronic  rheumatic 
gout,  which  made  its  appearance  "gradually,  in  a 
woman  at  the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  the  'joints  of 
whose  hands  are  now,  at  the  age  of  forty-three  years, 
much  crippled  and  deformed ;  her  mother,  who  died 
at  the  age  of  forty-six  years,  suffered  greatly  from 
chronic  rheumatic  gout,  which  had  commenced  thir- 
teen years  previously,  and  which  had  thoroughly 
crippled  and  deformed  the  joints  of  both  hands; 
there  were  three  brothers  and  four  sisters,  the  eldest 
of  whom  was  a  brother  aged  forty-five  years,  all  of 
whom  have  been  free  from  any  similar  affection ;  and 
in  another  case  which  is  at  present  under  my  obser- 
vation, in  which  a  girl,  aged  eighteen  years,  has  the 
hands  and  feet  dreadfully  crippled  by  the  same  affec- 
tion, which  began  at  the  age  of  fourteen  years ;  her 
lother,  maternal  aunt,  and  maternal  grandmother, 
have  all  suffered  in  the  same  way,  while  the  males  of 

family  have  been  exempt."  2 

Mr.  Sedgwick  reports  the  following  case,  which 
occurred  in  his  own  practice  : 

"  Mrs.  A ,  under  the  age  of  forty  years,  and 

the  mother  of  seven  children,  has  not  had  for  many 

1  From  "  Report  of  Census  in  Ireland,"  as  quoted  by  Mr.  Sedgwick 
in  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1861,  p.  141. 

2  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1862,  p.  168. 


228  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

years  a  sound  tooth,  the  decay  having  begun  very 
early  in  life  ;  she  has  no  brothers,  but  there  are  three 
sisters,  younger  than  herself,  whose  teeth  are  in  a 
similar  state,  and  in  all  of  whom  the  decay  commenced 
at  a  very  early  age ;  their  mother  was  similarly  affect- 
ed in  the  teeth,  and,  like  her  four  daughters,  '  was  a 
martyr  to  the  toothache.' 

"  Of  Mrs.  A 's  seven  children,  five  are  girls, 

in  four  of  whom,  aged  respectively  sixteen,  twelve, 
nine,  and  seven  years,  the  teeth  began  to  decay  at  the 
age  of  two  years  or  soon  afterward ;  in  the  youngest 
girl,  aged  two  years  and  a  quarter,  the  teeth  are  not 
decayed,  but  the  dentition  has  been  difficult. 

"  Of  the  two  boys,  the  third  and  fifth  children  in 
the  order  of  birth,  one  died  at  the  age  of  three  years, 
and  the  other  has  attained  the  age  of  four  years,  with- 
out any  decay  in  their  teeth.  The  father  of  these 
children  has  sound  teeth. 

"  Of  Mrs.  A 's  three  sisters,  the  eldest  has  had 

four  children,  two  boys,  aged  fifteen  and  five  years, 
with  sound  teeth;  and  two  girls,  aged  thirteen  and 
three  years,  with  decayed  teeth.  The  two  other  sis- 
ters of  Mrs.  A have  no  children."  l 

Mr.  Sedgwick  reports  the  following  case  of  the 
hereditary  procreation  of  twins  by  one  of  his  female 
patients :  "  The  mother,  the  maternal  aunt,  the  ma- 
ternal grandmother,  and  the  maternal  great-grand- 
mother, have  all  had  twins,  but  none  of  the  sons  in 
these  families  have  ever  been  known  to  transmit  in 
this  way  a  double  heritage,  although  some  of  them 

1  British  and  Foreign  Afcdico-Chirurgical  Review,  April,  1863,  p. 
454. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  229 

have  been  twins,  with,  twin-brothers,  both  of  whom 
have,  in  some  instances,  married  and  had  large  fami- 
lies of  children."  1 

Cases  are  on  record  of  renal  calculi  inherited  from 
the  mother,2  but  as  these  might  be  attributed  to  intra- 
uterine  development,  the  following  case  is  of  interest, 
as  showing  direct  transmission  of  the  disease  by  the 
father :  "  Mr.  Squire  gives  the  case  of  a  still-born  male 
child  that  he  had  the  opportunity  of  examining,  where 
the  calices  and  the  pelvis  of  the  kidneys  were  filled 
with  numerous  uric-acid  calculi,  some  of  the  size  of 
small  peas ;  the  father  had  been  operated  on  for  stone, 
and  was  then  passing  uric-acid  calculi  by  the  urethra, 
and  he  was  a  continual  sufferer  from  marked  symp- 
toms of  the  uric-acid  diathesis." 3 

"Yenette  relates  the  case  of  two  brothers  who 
had  an  hereditary  aversion  to  cheese;  their  mother 
had  a  decided  taste  for  cheese,  but  the  repugnance  of 
the  father  was  such  that  at  only  the  smell  of  it  he 
was  ready  to  faint."  4 

The  following  case  was  observed  by  Michaelis: 
"  Every  one  of  the  male  posterity  of  a  noble  family 
at  Hamburg,  dating  back  to  the  great-grandfather,  and 
remarkable  for  their  military  talents,  was,  at  the  age 
of  forty  years,  attacked  with  madness ;  there  remained 
only  a  single  descendant,  an  officer,  like  his  fathers, 
who  was  forbidden  by  the  senate  of  the  town  to 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Cliirurgical  Review,  July,  1861,  p. 
148. 

2  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  336. 

8  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1863,  p. 
166.  4  Ibid.,  p.  164. 


230  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

marry:  the  critical  age  arrived,  and  he  lost  his  rea- 
son." * 

The  numerous  cases  in  which  peculiarities  belong- 
ing exclusively  to  one  sex  are  transmitted  by  the  other 
are  of  particular  interest,  as  they  illustrate  the  manner 
in  which  resemblances  are  sometimes  transmitted  by 
atavic  descent. 

Mr.  Talcott  reports  the  following  case.  He  says : 
"  I  had  a  fine  cow  with  nice  bag  and  teats,  which  I 
took  to  a  bull  in  the  neighborhood,  and  the  produce 
was  a  heifer-calf,  which  was  raised  because  of  the  good 
milking-qualities  of  her  dam ;  but  when  she  became 
a  cow,  instead  of  any  of  the  good  qualities  of  her  dam 
as  was  expected,  her  bag  and  teats  were  more  in  con- 
trast (sic)  with  that  of  a  sheep  than  of  a  good  dairy- 
cow.  I  then  began  to  investigate  the  cause,  and  found 
that  the  heifer  was  the  counterpart  of  the  dam  of  the 
bull,  she  being  an  ordinary  cow  with  a  small  bag  and 
still  smaller  teats,  and  from  that  time  to  this  I  have 
found  that  too  frequently  that  is  the  case,  especially 
if  the  bull  was  from  such  a  stock  or  family  of  light 
milkers  that  it  was  not  desirable  to  perpetuate  them. 
I  remember  distinctly  the  first  pure-bred  Short-Horn 
bull  I  ever  had,  that  the  bag  of  his  dam  was  the  largest 
in  the  hind-quarters,  consequently  that  she  gave  most 
milk  from  the  hind-teats,  and  that  quality  was  trans- 
mitted to  the  majority  of  his  heifers  when  they  came 
to  be  cows,  their  bags  tending  largely  in  the  hind- 
quarters. And  I  think,  from  such  observations,  that 

1  Prosper  Lucas,  "  De  1'Heredite"  naturelle,"  vol.  i.,  p.  255 ;  as 
quoted  by  Sedgwick,  in  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review^ 
April,  1863,  p.  473. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  231 

there  can  be  no  doubt  that  such  is  the  case  gener- 
ally."1 

It  is  well  known  to  the  breeders  of  Ayrshire  cattle 
that  the  sire  has  an  important  influence  upon  the  form 
and  functional  activity  of  the  udder ;  and  the  position 
and  development  of  the  false  teats  of  the  bull  are  be- 
lieved to  furnish  an  indication  of  the  milking  qualities 
he  will  be  likely  to  transmit. 

In  the  large  number  of  grade  Ayrshires  that  I  have 
bred  for  dairy-purposes,  the  udder,  in  most  instances, 
has  resembled  the  family  type  of  the  sire  in  form  and 
general  proportions.  The  males  of  the  dairy-breeds, 
generally,  are  prepotent  in  the  transmission  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  females  of  their  race. 

It  is  well  known,  for  example,"  says  Mr.  Sedg- 
wick,  "  that  the  supply  of  milk  by  cows  is  hereditarily 
luenced  by  the  bulls  rather  than  by  the  cows  from 
rhich  they  are  directly  descended,  and  that  the  char- 
jter  of  the  secretion,  as  regards  both  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  milk,  is  chiefly  derived  from  the 
iternal  grandmother,  by  atavic  descent "  (Burdach, 
"  Traite  de  Physiologic,"  vol.  iii.,  page  117 ;  and  Girou, 
,  tit.,  page  127);  "and  as  we  descend  still  lower 
the  scale,  we  find,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  in- 
evidence  more  or  less  (decisive  in  favor  of  the 
emission  by  either  sex  of  the  distinctive  peculiari- 
ties of  the  other ;  while  the  capability  of  both  sexes 
in  the  human  race  to  transmit  disease  by  atavic  de- 
it  is  occasionally  illustrated  by  the  occurrence  of 
in  which  the  transmission  is  effected  by  a  male 

1  Country  Gentleman,  April,  1865,  p.  236.    For  other  similar  cases, 
see  Country  Gentleman,  1873,  p.  42. 


232  PKINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

and  a  female  branch  of  the  same  family,  as  in  the 
following  case,  related  by  F.  Meckel "  (Lancet,  1829 
-'30,  vol.  i.,  page  792),  "in  which  the  modified  in- 
fluence of  sex  is  associated  with  atavism  of  unequal 
remoteness ;  '  a  man  whose  palate  was  entire,  but  un- 
even, as  if  cicatrized,  had,  by  a  perfectly  healthy  wife, 
seven  children,  of  whom  the  four  boys  were  well 
formed,  but  the  three  girls  had  hare-lip  and  divided 
palate.  His  mother's  sister  had  also  seven  children, 
five  sons  and  two  daughters,  of  whom  the  former 
were  all  similarly  deformed.' "  * 

In  the  two  following  cases,  the  one  of  a  disease 
and  the  other  of  a  congenital  defect  of  the  male  organs 
of  generation,  the  female  parent  transmits  to  her  off- 
spring peculiarities  that  she  could  not  herself  be  af- 
fected with. 

Sir  Henry  Holland  reports  a  case  "  of  hydrocele 
occurring  in  three  out  of  four  generations  in  one  fam- 
ily, the  omission  adding  to  the  singularity  of  the  fact 
from  its  depending  on  a  female  being  third  in  the 
series,  in  whose  son  the  complaint  reappeared." a 

Many  cases  of  hereditary  hypospadias  (a  defect  of 
the  male  urethra)  are  on  record. 

"  In  a  case  observed  by  Meckel,  it  appears  that  a 
woman,  born  of  a  family  which  presented  many  ex- 
amples of  hypospadias,  gave  birth  to  two  boys  affected 
with  the  deformity." 8 

1  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1863,  p.  193. 

*  Edinburgh  Medical  Journal,  1858-'59,  p.  501 ;  quoted  in  British 
and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1861,  p.  148. 

8  British  and  Foreign  Medico-Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1863,  p. 
173. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  233 

A  case  is  reported  "  of  the  total  absence  of  the 
uterus  in  three  out  of  five  daughters  in  the  same  fam- 
ily." This  is  supposed  to  be  an  instance  of  collateral 
inheritance  through  the  males  of  the  family,  as  it 
could  not,  of  course,  be  directly  transmitted.1 

Mr.  Sedgwick,  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Russell,  of 
Birmingham,  gives  the  following  case  of  hereditary 
obesity,  limited  to  the  male  sex :  "  The  first  is  the  case 
of  a  very  stout  and  flabby  man,  with  copious  deposit 
of  fat,  and  symptoms  of  fatty  heart;  he  has  four 
brothers  and  one  sister :  the  sister  is  thin,  while  one 
of  his  brothers  is  as  large  as  himself,  and  the  three 
others  are  larger ;  his  father,  paternal  uncle,  and  pa- 
ternal grandfather  were  large  and  fat  men ;  his  moth- 
er was  of  medium  size,  and  his  maternal  grandmoth- 
er was  tall  and  thin.  The  second  case  is  that  of  a 
very  stout  man,  aged  twenty  years,  with  a  very  large 
amount  of  subcutaneous  fat,  and  symptoms  of  a  fatty 
heart ;  he  has  had  ten  brothers  and  sisters,  of  whom 
only  two  brothers  and  two  sisters  are  living ;  the  two 
brothers  are  even  fatter  and  heavier  than  he  is,  while 
the  two  sisters  are  of  only  medium  size;  his  father 
was,  as  a  young  man,  always  very  fat,  and  other  male 
relations  in  the  family  are  also  large-made  and  fat."  a 

"  A  sporting-dog,  the  issue  of  a  setter  mother  and 
a  spaniel  father,  was  coupled  with  a  setter  bitch,  and 
the  male  offspring  were  spaniels,  like  the  paternal 
grandfather,  and  resembled  him  in  their  hair,  while 

1  British  Medical  Journal,  October  5,  1861,  p.  359;  as  quoted  by 
Sedgwick,  loc.  tit.,  p.  171. 

9  British  and  Foreign  Medico-Chirurgical  Review,  July,  1863,  p. 
168. 

11 


234:  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

the  female  offspring  were  setters,  having  the  color  of 
their  mother.1 

"  A  family  of  Angora  eats,  of  which  the  mother 
is  white  and  deaf ;  the  father,  which  hears,  is  white 
and  black ;  all  the  kittens  which  are  born  white  are 
deaf  as  the  mother,  those  which  resemble  the  father 
are  not  so."  a 

In  the  case  of  Augustin  Duforet,  already  referred 
to,  the  malformed  digits  in  the  third  generation  were 
inherited  by  the  twelve  sons,  while  the  seven  daugh- 
ters were  exempt,  and  the  same  sexual  limitation  oc- 
curred in  the  second  generation  with  a  single  excep- 
tion.8 

Mr.  Dallas,4  in  one  of  the  Highland  Agricultural 
Society  essays,  already  mentioned,  advances  the  theory 
that  the  male  has  the  greatest  influence  on  the  exter- 
nal appearance  of  the  offspring,  and  the  female  on 
the  internal  qualities ;  and  this  division  of  influence 
he  accounts  for  on  the  supposition  that  the  seminal 
fluid  of  the  male  invests  the  ovum,  and  thus  forms  its 
outer  envelope,  while  the  germ  itself,  from  which  the 
internal  structures  are  formed,  is  furnished  by  the 

1  Sedgwick,  loc.  cit.,  April,  1863,  p.  451,  who  quotes  from  "De  la 
Generation,"  by  Girou,  p.  123. 

2  Sedgwick,  loc.  cit.,  p.  458 ;  on  the  authority  of  M.  Bouvyer-Des- 
mortiers. 

8  Quite  a  number  of  instances  of  sexual  limitation  of  hereditary 
characters  may  be  found  among  the  cases  cited  to  illustrate  other 
forms  of  heredity  in  the  preceding  chapters.  A  summary  of  the 
facts  presented  by  Dr.  Prosper  Lucas  and  Mr.  Sedgwiek,  with  addi- 
tional cases,  has  been  given  by  Darwin,  in  "  Animals  and  Plants  under 
Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  pp.  93,  94. 

4  "  Transactions  of  the  Highland  Society,"  vol.  i.,  p.  43. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE   OF  PARENTS.  235 

female.  As  this  physiological  exposition,  on  which 
the  theory  is  based,  is  a  pure  assumption,  in  direct 
conflict  with  the  known  facts  of  embryology,  the  essay 
may  be  passed  without  further  comment. 

A  modified  form  of  this  theory  has  been  elaborated 
by  Mr.  Walker,1  who  draws  most  of  his  illustrations 
from  the  human  family ;  and,  more  recently,  Mr.  Or- 
tona  has  advanced  the  same  theory,  in  its  applications 
to  stock-breeding. 

As  a  large  proportion  of  modern  writers  on  the 
physiology  of  breeding  have  quoted  the  arguments 
of  Walker  and  Orton  with  approval,  their  theories 
have  assumed  an  importance  that  is  not  warranted  by 
their  real  merits. 

Mr.  Walker  enunciates  his  first  law  as  follows : 
"Where  both  parents  are  of  the  same  variety,  .  .  . 
one  parent  communicates  the  anterior  part  of  the  head 
(and  I  believe  the  upper  middle  part  also),  the  osseous 
or  bony  part  of  the  face,  the  forms  of  the  organs  of 
sense  (the  external  ear,  under  lip,  lower  part  of  the 
nose,  and  eyebrows,  being  often  modified),  and  the 
whole  of  the  internal  nutritive  system  (the  contents  of 
the  trunk,  or  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  viscera,  and 
consequently  the  form  of  the  trunk  itself,  in  so  far  as 
that  depends  upon  its  contents).  The  resemblance  to 
that  parent  is,  consequently,  found  in  the  forehead 
and  the  bony  parts  of  the  face,  as  the  orbits,  cheek- 
bones, jaws,  chin,  and  teeth,  as  well  as  the  shape  of 
the  organs  of  sense,  and  the  tone  of  the  voice.  .  .  . 
The  other  parent  communicates  the  posterior  part  of 

1  "  On  Intermarriage,"  1839. 

2  "  On  the  Physiology  of  Breeding,"  two  lectures,  1855. 


236  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

the  head  (and  I  believe  the  lower  middle  part  also), 
the  cerebral,  situated  within  the  skull,  immediately 
above  its  junction  with  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  the 
whole  of  the  locomotive  system  (the  bones,  ligaments, 
and  muscles,  or  fleshy  parts).  The  resemblance  to  that 
parent  is,  consequently,  found  in  the  back-head,  the 
few  more  movable  parts  of  the  face,  as  the  external 
ear,  under  lip,  lower  part  of  the  nose,  eyebrows,  and 
the  external  forms  of  the  body,  in  so  far  as  they  de- 
pend on  the  muscles,  as  well  as  the  form  of  the  limbs, 
even  to  the  fingers,  toes,  and  nails."  x 

"  It  is  a  fact,"  says  Mr.  Walker,  "  established  by 
my  observations,  that,  in  animals  of  the  same  variety, 
either  the  male  or  the  female  parent  may  give  either 
series  of  organs,  as  above  arranged — that  is,  either 
forehead  and  organs  of  sense,  together  with  the  vital 
and  nutritive  organs,  or,  back-head,  together  with  the 
locomotive  organs." a 

"  The  second  law,  namely,  that  of  crossing,  oper- 
ates where  each  parent  is  of  a  different  breed,  and 
when,  supposing  both  to  be  of  equal  age  and  vigor, 
the  male  gives  the  back-head  and  locomotive  organs, 
and  the  female  the  face  and  nutritive  organs."  * 

"  The  third  law,  namely,  that  of  in-and-in  breed- 
ing, operates  where  both  parents  are  not  only  of  the 
same  variety,  but  of  the  same  family  in  its  narrowest 
sense,  and  when  the  female  gives  always  the  back-head 
and  locomotive  organs,  and  the  male  the  face  and 
nutritive  organs — precisely  the  reverse  of  what  takes 
place  in  crossing." 4 

1  Walker  on  "  Intermarriage,"  pp.  142,  143. 

2  Loc.  tit.,  p.  146.       3  Walker,  loc.  tit.,  p.  184.       4  Ibid.,  p.  204. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  237 

According  to  Mr.  Orton,1  "  the  male  animal  influ- 
ences especially  the  external,  and  the  female  the  in- 
ternal, organization  of  the  offspring.  The  outward 
form,  general  appearance,  and  organs  of  locomotion, 
are  chiefly  determined  by  the  male ;  the  vital  organs, 
size,  general  vigor,  and  endurance,  by  the  female." 2 

As  stated  by  Goodale,  he  maintains  that  "  the  male 
parent  chiefly  determines  the  external  characters,  the 
general  appearance,  in  fact,  the  outward  structure  and 
locomotive  powers  of  the  offspring,  as  the  framework, 
or  bones  and  muscles,  more  particularly  those  of  the 
limbs,  the  organs  of  sense,  and  skin ;  while  the  female 
parent  chiefly  determines  the  internal  structures  and 
the  general  quality,  mainly  furnishing  the  vital  organs, 
i.  e.,  the  heart,  lungs,  glands,  and  digestive  organs,  and 
giving  tone  and  character  to  the  vital  functions  of  se- 
cretion, nutrition,  and  growth." 3 

Mr.  Spooner  says :  "  The  most  probable  supposi- 
tion is,  that  propagation  is  done  by  halves,  each  parent 
giving  to  the  offspring  the  shape  of  one-half  of  the 
body.  Thus  the  back,  loins,  hind-quarters,  general 

pe,  skin,  and  size,  follow  one  pr.rcnt ;  and  the  fore- 
rs,  head,  vital  and  nervous  system,  the  other ; 

d  we  may  go  so  far  as  to  add  that  the  former,  in 

e  great  majority  of  cases,  go  with  the  male  parent, 

d  the  latter  with  the  female." 4 

1  Not  being  able  to  refer  directly  to  Mr.  Orton's  original  paper,  the 
itements  of  his  opinions  are  quoted  from  the  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  43  ;  Goodale's  "  Principles  of  Breed- 
ing," pp.  73-79 ;  and  Journal  of  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society \ 
1857-'59,  pp.  19-22.  a  Jour,  of  the  Royal  Agricul  Soc.,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  43. 

3  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  p.  75. 

4  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xx.,  p.  296. 


238  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Mr.  Spooner  adds,1  however,  that  "  the  size  is  gov- 
erned more  by  the  male  parent ; "  while  Mr.  Orton  is 
equally  positive  that  the  size  must  follow  the  female 
parent.9 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  advocates  of  the  half- 
and-half  theory  of  generation  do  not  agree  in  many 
particulars  as  to  the  supposed  division  of  parental  in- 
fluence, and  this  in  itself  may  fairly  be  urged  as  an 
objection  to  the  theory. 

When  the  offspring  in  external  form  resembles 
one  parent,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  internal  or  vital 
organization  is  derived  from  the  other  parent,  and  the 
advocates  of  this  theory  have  failed  to  produce  any 
evidence  that  can  possibly  warrant  such  a  conclusion. 

In  crossing  a  pure-bred  male,  of  any  of  the  im- 
proved meat-producing  breeds,  upon  native  or  cross- 
bred females,  the  sire  is  not  only  prepotent  in  deter- 
mining the  external  form  and  characters  of  the  off- 
spring, but  he  has  also  a  predominant  influence  upon 
the  organs  of  nutrition,  as  is  shown  in  the  uniform 
superiority  of  the  grade  animal  to  its  dam,  in  size, 
feeding  quality,  and  early  maturity. 

Instead  of  a  limitation  of  the  influence  of  each 
parent  to  a  particular  set  of  organs,  we  find  the  parent 
that  is  prepotent  in  the  transmission  of  its  characters 
has  a  controlling  influence  upon  the  internal  as  well 
as  the  external  organization  of  the  offspring. 

Physiological  objections  may  likewise  be  made  to 
the  classification  and  presumed  origin  of  the  various 
organs  of  the  body,  in  each  of  the  three  forms  of  the 
theory  under  consideration. 

1  Loc.  tit.,  p.  295.  2  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  p.  78. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  239 

In  an  early  stage  of  the  development  of  the  germ, 
a  blastodermic  membrane  is  formed,  from  which  the 
embryo  is  developed.  This  blastodermic  membrane 
is  soon  separated  into  two  layers,  which  are  designated 
as  the  external  and  internal  layers  of  the  germinal  or 
blastodermic  membrane.  "According  to  the  most 
recent  observations,  the  main  portion  of  the  external 
layer,  sometimes  called  the  serous  layer,  simply  forms 
a  temporary  investment  for  the  rest  of  the  vitellus 
(yolk),  and  is  not  developed  into  any  part  of  the  em- 
bryon.  The  internal  layer,  called  the  mucous  layer, 
is  developed  into  nothing  but  the  epithelial  lining  of 
the  alimentary  canal.  There  is  a  thickening  of  both 
of  these  layers  at  the  line  of  development  of  the  cere- 
bro-spinal  system,  with  a  furrow,  which  is  finally  in- 
closed by  an  elevation  of  the  ridges  and  their  union 
posteriorly,  forming  the  canal  for  the  spinal  cord.  As 
the  spinal  canal  is  thus  developed,  a  new  layer  is 
formed  by  a  genesis  of  cells  from  the  internal  surface 
of  the  original  layer  and  the  opposite  surface  of  the 
internal  or  mucous  layer.  This  layer  of  new  cells 
may  be  termed  the  intermediate  layer,  and  it  is  from 
this  that  nearly  all  the  parts  of  the  embryon  are  de- 
veloped. 

"  To  summarize  the  development  of  the  layers  just 
mentioned,  we  may  state  that  the  external  layer  is  a 
temporary  structure ;  the  internal  layer  is  very  thin, 
and  is  for  the  development  of  the  epithelial  lining  of 
the  alimentary  canal ;  and  the  most  important  struct- 

is  a  thick  layer  of  cells  developed  from  the  oppo- 
site surfaces  of  the  external  and  the  internal  layers, 
and  situated  between  them,  called  the  intermediate 


24:0  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BKEEDING. 

layer ;  and  it  is  from  these  cells  that  the  greatest  part 
of  the  embrjon  is  formed."  * 

As  there  is  a  tendency  to  a  subdivision  of  the  three 
layers  mentioned,  some  modern  physiologists  include 
in  the  external  layer  the  upper  surface  of  the  inter- 
mediate layer,  while  the  lower  surface  of  the  inter- 
mediate layer  is  included  in  the  inner  layer  of  the 
blastodermic  membrane. 

This  does  not,  however,  involve  any  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  parts  of  the  germinal  membrane  that 
are  developed  into  the  different  organs  of  the  body. 
Dr.  Marshall,  who  adopts  the  latter  classification,  says : 
"  From  the  upper  external  or  serous  layer,  also  named 
the  sensorial  layer,  are  developed,  along  its  axial  por- 
tion, the  cerebro-spinal  nervous  axis  and  the  organs  of 
the  senses,  and,  from  its  lateral  portions,  the  cuticle 
or  outer  skin,  with  its  epidermic  appendages,  the 
feathers,  bill,  and  claws,  and,  in  the  mammalia,  the 
nails  and  hairs  ;  lastly,  the  sebaceous  and  sudoriferous 
cutaneous  glands,  and  the  Meibomian,  ceruminous, 
and  mammary  glands. 

"  From  the  middle  layer,  also  called  the  motorio- 
sexual  layer,  are  developed,  by  complicated  metamor- 
phoses of  its  substance,  the  bones,  the  muscular  sys- 
tem, the  peripheral  spinal  nerves,  the  sympathetic 
nerves,  the  heart,  blood-vessels,  and  lymphatic  system, 
the  so-called  ductless  glands,  and  the  reproductive 
organs  ;  also,  next  to  the  external  layer,  the  true  skin, 
and,  next  to  the  internal  layer,  the  muscular  and  sub- 
mucous  coats  of  the  alimentary  canal. 

"Lastly,  from  the  internal  layer,  also  called  the 

1  Flint's  "Physiology,"  1875,  vol.  v.,  p.  360. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  241 

mucous  or  intestinal  layer,  are  developed  the  epithe- 
lial lining  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  all  its  glandu- 
lar extensions,  such  as  the  mucous,  the  gastric,  and 
intestinal  glands,  the  pancreas,  and  the  liver,  also  the 
lungs  and  respiratory  passages,  and  the  urinary  appa- 
ratus, including  the  bladder,  ureters,  and  kidneys." l 

From  this  outline  of  the  origin  of  the  different 
organs  in  the  development  of  the  embryo,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  classification  of  organs  made  by  Messrs. 
Walker,  Orton,  and  Spooner,  is  not  in  accordance  with 
their  true  relations  in  the  process  of  embryological 
development. 

As  both  locomotive  and  nutritive  organs  are  de- 
veloped from  the  middle  germinal  layer,  which  is 
derived  from  a  cell  outgrowth  of  the  external  and  in- 
ternal layers,  it  does  not  seem  probable  that  either 
group  of  organs  is  produced  by  the  exclusive  influence 
of  one  parent. 

Many  of  the  arguments  advanced  in  favor  of  this 
theory  are  drawn  from  fancied  analogies  that  are  not 
in  harmony  with  well-established  facts. 

"  It  is  clear,"  says  Mr.  Walker,  "  that  the  whole 
nutritive  system,  chiefly  contained  within  the  trunk, 
is  naturally  connected  with  the  senses  of  taste  and 
smell,  which  are  the  guides  to  the  supply  of  its  wants 
as  to  food  and  drink,  and  therefore  the  senses  con- 
tained in  the  face  (and  consequently  the  observing 
faculties  dependent  on  these  senses  and  contained  in 
the  forehead)  ought  to  accompany  the  nutritive  system." 

And,  by  a  similar  process  of  reasoning,  he  con- 
cludes that  "  the  back-head,  containing  both  the  organ 

1  "  Outlines  of  Physiology,"  p.  954. 


242  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

of  wilf  and  the  posterior  masses  of  the  brain — the 
seats  of  desire  or  aversion  by  which  will  is  excited — 
ought  to  accompany  the  locomotive  system,  not  mere- 
ly in  the  greater  masses  of  the  figure,  but  even  in  the 
muscles  of  the  face." l 

It  may  be  that  this  ought  to  be  the  case,  but  Na- 
ture has,  unfortunately  for  herself  or  the  theory,  de- 
veloped the  structures  so  closely  associated  from  quite 
different  portions  of  the  blastodermic  membrane  of 
the  embryo. 

As  the  peculiarities  of  hybrids  are  relied  upon  as 
furnishing  the  most  conclusive  evidence  of  the  truth 
of  this  theory,  an  examination  of  this  part  of  the  argu- 
ment will  be  of  particular  interest. 

"  The  mule,"  says  Mr.  Orton,  "  the  produce  of  the 
male  ass  and  the  mare,  is  essentially  a  modified  ass  / 
the  ears  are  those  of  an  ass  somewhat  shortened ;  the 
mane  is  that  of  the  ass,  erect ;  the  tail  is  that  of  an 
ass ;  the  skin  and  color  are  those  of  an  ass  somewhat 
modified ;  the  legs  are  slender,  and  the  hoofs  high, 
narrow,  and  contracted,  like  those  of  an  ass ;  in  fact, 
in  all  these  respects  it  is  an  ass  somewhat  modified. 
The  body  and  barrel  of  the  mule  are  round  and  full, 
in  which  it  differs  from  the  ass  and  resembles  the 
mare.  The  hinny a  (or  muto),  on  the  other  hand,  the 
produce  of  the  stallion  and  she-ass,  is  essentially  a 
modified  horse ;  the  ears  are  those  of  a  horse  some- 
what lengthened  ;  the  mane  flowing ;  the  tail  is  bushy, 
like  that  of  a  horse ;  the  skin  is  finer,  like  that  of  a 
horse;  and  the  color  varies  also  like  the  horse;  the 

1  Walker  on  "  Intermarriage,"  pp.  143,  144. 

2  Bardeau  of  the  French. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  243 

legs  are  stronger,  and  the  hoofs  broad  and  expanded, 
like  those  of  a  horse.  In  fact,  in  all  these  respects  it 
is  a  horse  somewhat  modified. 

"  The  body  and  barrel,  however,  of  the  hinny  are 
flat  and  narrow,  in  which  it  differs  from  the  horse  and 
resembles  its  mother,  the  ass.  It  is  clearly  evident 
that  these  two  hybrid  animals  have  followed  the  male 
parent  in  all  his  external  characteristics. 

"  In  two  respects  there  is,  however,  a  striking  de- 
parture from  him.  First,  in  size  they  both  follow  the 
female  parent,  the  mule  being  in  all  respects  a  larger 
and  finer  animal  than  its  sire,  the  ass ;  while  the  hinny 
is  just  the  reverse,  being  flat  and  narrow.  In  this  re- 
spect the  mule  is  just  the  reverse  of  its  sire,  the  ass, 
while  the  hinny  is  just  the  reverse  of  its  sire,  the 
horse ;  while  both,  also,  in  this  respect  (the  body  and 
barrel)  resemble  their  female  parent."  * 

Mr.  Orton  adds :  "  The  mule  brays,  while  the 
hinny  neighs.  The  why  and  wherefore  of  this  is  a 
perfect  mystery,  until  we  come  to  apply  the  knowl- 
edge afforded  us  by  the  law  I  have  given.  The  male 
gives  the  locomotive  organs,  and  the  muscles  are 
among  these ;  the  muscles  are  the  organs  which  modu- 
late the  voice  of  the  animal ;  the  mule  has  the  muscu- 
lar structures  of  its  sire,  the  ass ;  the  hinny  has  the 
muscular  structures  of  its  sire,  the  horse ;  the  organs 
of  voice  in  the  former  are  those  of  its  sire,  the  ass, 
hence  it  brays ;  the  organs  of  voice  of  the  latter  are 
those  of  its  sire,  the  horse,  hence  it  neighs." a 

1  Quoted  from  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  1857- 
'59,  p.  21. 

8  Journal  of  tJie  Highland  Agricultural  Society,  1857-'69,  p.  22. 


244  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

There  is  a  substratum  of  truth  in  these  statements 
that,  at  the  first  glance,  gives  a  plausibility  to  the 
argument  in  favor  of  this  theory — which,  however, 
disappears  when  all  the  facts  are  presented  in  their 
true  relations. 

Without  noticing  the  fallacies  in  the  statement 
in  regard  to  the  resemblance  of  the  mule  to  its  "  sire, 
the  ass,"  it  may  be  admitted  that  the  ass  is  prepotent 
in  the  transmission  of  its  characters  when  bred  with 
the  mare,  and  that  the  mule  consequently  presents  a 
stronger  resemblance  to  its  sire  than  to  its  dam. 

According  to  M.  Colin,  who  is  one  of  the  highest 
authorities  on  the  comparative  anatomy  and  physiol- 
ogy of  domestic  animals,  the  hinny  resembles  the  ass 
more  closely  than  it  does  the  horse.  It  has  a  finer 
head  than  the  mule,  and  in  the  mane  and  tail  more 
nearly  resembles  the  horse ;  but,  in  general  form  and 
size,  in  peculiarities  of  the  nostril,  the  withers,  the 
back,  the  legs  and  feet,  and  other  minor  peculiarities, 
it  presents  a  stronger  resemblance  to  the  dam  than  to 
the  sire.  "  On  the  whole,"  says  M.  Colin,  "  in  the 
produce  of  the  two  species,  the  ass  and  the  horse,  it  is 
undoubtedly  the  influence  of  the  ass  that  predomi- 
nates in  the  transmission  of  the  external  form,  the 
constitution,  and  the  disposition." 1 

After  noticing  the  results  of  the  cross  of  the  zebra 
and  the  horse,  the  ass  and  the  zebra,  and  the  hemione 
and  the  ass,  M.  Colin  concludes  as  follows :  "  In  ex- 
amining the  mules  of  solipeds,  we  see  that  if  the 
mule,  properly  so  called,  resembles  the  ass,  its  father, 

1  "  Physiologic  compare  des  Animaux  domestiques,"  tome  ii.,  p. 
637. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  245 

in  general  form,  in  the  head,  the  mane,  the  back,  the 
tail,  the  legs,  and  the  feet ;  the  hinny  (bardeau)  that, 
on  the  whole,  differs  but  little  from  the  mule,  resem- 
bles the  ass,  its  mother,  in  the  large  number  of  its 
points,  the  head  and  the  mane  excepted.  If,  then,  it 
is  true  that  the  first  (the  mule)  derives  its  form  from 
its  father,  it  is  equally  true  that  the  second  (the  hinny) 
derives  its  form  from  the  mother,  and,  if  the  parents 
transmit  their  form  to  the  anterior  part  of  the  body, 
they  do  the  same  for  the  posterior  part.  Consequent- 
ly what  the  father  gives  to  the  mule,  the  mother,  with 
but  slight  variation,  gives  to  the  hinny. 

"In  the  second  place,  if  the  mule  derives  from 
the  ass,  its  father,  its  constitution,  strength,  hardiness, 
and  disposition,  the  hinny  derives  the  same  characters 
from  the  ass,  its  mother,  as  there  is  a  stronger  resem- 
blance of  the  two  hybrids  in  these  characters  than 
there  is  even  in  external  conformation ;  and,  finally, 
if  the  mule  derives  its  size  from  the  mother,  why  is  it 
not  her  equal  in  this  respect  ?  and,  if  the  hinny  derives 
its  size  from  the  mother,  why  does  it  exceed  her  in 
size?"1 

Some  of  the  advocates  of  the  theory  under  review 
admit  that,  so  far  as  size  of  the  offspring  is  concerned, 
a  preponderating  influence  cannot  be  exclusively  at- 
tributed to  either  parent.  Mr.  Spooner  says :  "  How 
often  do  we  find  that,  in  the  by  no  means  infrequent 
case  of  the  union  of  a  tall  man  with  a  short  woman, 
the  result  in  some  instances  is  that  all  the  children  are 
tall,  and  in  others  all  short ;  or,  sometimes,  that  some 
of  the  family  are  short  and  others  tall !  Within  our 

1  Colin,  loc.  ctt.y  p.  639. 


246  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

own  knowledge,  in  one  case  where  the  father  was  tall 
and  the  mother  short,  the  children,  six  in  number,  are 
all  tall.  In  another  instance,  the  father  being  short 
and  the  mother  tall,  the  children,  seven  in  number, 
are  all  of  lofty  stature.  In  the  third  instance,  the 
mother  being  tall  and  the  father  short,  the  greater 
portion  of  the  family  are  short." * 

The  resemblance  of  the  hinny  to  the  mule,  noticed 
by  M.  Colin,  has  likewise  been  observed  in  this  coun- 
try. Mr.  B.  F.  Cockrell,  of  Nashville,  Tennessee, 
says :  "  In  the  year  1850  I  bred  a  dozen  jennets  to  a 
thorough-bred  son  of  imported  Priam.  The  following 
spring  I  had  six  mules  foaled.  In  1851  I  again  bred 
these  same  jennets  to  the  same  stallion,  and  had  four 
mules  foaled,  three  of  which  lived  and  attained  ma- 
turity. I  often  asked  visitors  to  point  out  the  hinnies 
from  the  mules  (there  being  other  mules  on  the  plan- 
tation), and  in  no  instance  did  I  ever  find  a  man  that 
could  distinguish  them  from  other  mules. 

"  I  shipped  them,  with  forty  other  mules,  to  my 
father's  cotton-plantation  in  Mississippi,  where  they 
did  the  same  routine  of  duty  with  the  other  mules, 
and  remained  in«  all  respects  perfectly  incognito  as  to 
color,  feet,  head,  voice,  and  size,  to  their  death." 5 

A  correspondent  of  The  Country  Gentleman,  in 
reference  to  the  hinnies  bred  by  Mr.  Cockrell,  says : 
"  I  have  seen  but  one  hinny,  to  my  knowledge.  It 
was  before  a  wagon,  alongside  of  a  mule,  last  year.  I 
examined  it  closely,  but  was  unable  to  see  any  structu- 
ral peculiarities  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other.  It 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xx.,  p.  295. 

2  The  Country  Gentleman,  1876,  p.  170. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE   OF  PARENTS.  247 

was  colored  more  like  the  jennet  than  most  mules, 
but  I  have  seen  many  with  similar  markings,  and 
many  more  like  the  horse  in  style  and  finish  than  it 
was." l 

The  difference  in  the  voice  of  the  mule  and  the 
hinny,  that  Mr.  Orton  urges  as  an  important  part  of 
his  argument,  requires  a  passing  notice.  The  larynx 
is  the  organ  of  voice  in  mammals,  and  modifications 
of  its  form  give  rise  to  the  various  sounds  emitted  by 
different  species  of  animals.  In  the  ass  the  vocal  liga- 
ments are  inserted  in  an  arched  cavity.  "  On  each 
side  of  this  cavity  are  two  circular  apertures,  which 
lead  to  two  large  sacs  situated  behind  the  mucous 
membrane,  between  the  vocal  ligaments  and  internal 
surface  of  the  thyroid."  a 

The  characteristic  bray  of  the  ass  is  produced  by 
this  peculiar  conformation  of  the  larynx;  and  the 
mule,  inheriting  the  same  structure,  is  endowed  with 
a  similar  voice.  As  the  larynx  is  not  developed  from 
the  layer  of  the  blastodermic  membrane  that  gives 
rise  to  the  locomotive  organs,  the  argument  of  Mr. 
Orton,  in  regard  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  voice  of 
the  mule  and  the  hinny,  is  without  foundation. 

"  A  cross  between  a  male  wolf  and  a  bitch,"  says 
Mr.  Orton,  "illustrates  the  same  law,  the  offspring 
having  a  markedly  wolfish  aspect,  skin,  color,  ears, 
and  tail.  On  the  other  hand,  a  cross  between  the  dog 
and  female  wolf  afforded  animals  much  more  dog-like 
in  aspect,  slouched  ears,  and  even  pied  in  color. 

1  Loc.  dt.,  p.  170. 

2  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  1492 ; 
Journal  of  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society,  1857-'59,  p.  22. 


248  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

"  If  you  look  to  the  descriptions  and  illustrations 
of  these  two  hybrids,  you  will  perceive  at  a  glance 
that  the  doubt  arises"  to  the  mind  in  the  case  of  the 
first,  '  What  genus  of  wolf  is  this  ? '  whereas,  in  the 
case  of  the  second,  '  "What  a  curious  mongrel  dog  / J " ' 

If  this  statement  of  the  relative  influence  of  the 
parents,  in  the  case  of  a  cross  between  the  wolf  and 
the  dog,  could  be  made  to  agree  with  known  facts,  it 
would  furnish  a  very  strong  argument  in  favor  of  the 
half-and-half  theory. 

Buffon,  however,  mentions  "  the  very  conclusive 
case  of  a  she-wolf  which  had  two  cubs,  a  male  and 
a  female,  to  a  setter-dog.  The  male  resembled  the 
father  in  external  appearance,  except  that  the  ears 
were  pointed,  and  the  tail  like  that  of  the  wolf ;  the 
female  resembled  the  mother,  and  had  all  her  charac- 
teristics, with  the  exception  of  the  tail,  which  was 
that  of  the  dog."  The  same  author  informs  us  that 
"  the  produce  of  a  dog  and  a  slie-wolf  sometimes  bark 
and  sometimes  howl ;  and  the  produce  of  a  bitch-fox 
and  a  dog,  according  to  Burdach,  barked  like  a  dog, 
though  somewhat  hoarsely,  and  howled  like  a  wolf 
when  it  was  hurt.  A  similar  remark  has  been  made 
by  all  who  have  attended  to  cross-breeding  in  birds ; 
the  hybrid  of  the  goldfinch  and  the  canary  has  the 
song  of  the  goldfinch,  mingled  with  occasional  notes 
of  the  canary,  which  seem  perpetually  about  to  gain 
the  predominance."  * 

On  the  whole,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  evi- 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.   xvi.,  p.  44 ; 
Goodale's  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  p.  78. 

8  Journal  of  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society,  1857-'59,  p.  22. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  249 

dence  relating  to  hybrids  tends  to  disprove  the  theory 
under  consideration. 

If  the  male  furnishes  the  external  characters,  the 
color  of  the  offspring  should,  as  a  rule,  follow  that  of 
the  sire.  Mules  are,  however,  varied  in  color;  the 
white,  the  gray,  the  iron-gray,  the  black,  the  dun- 
colored,  the  spotted,  and  the  cream-colored,  are  of 
common  occurrence.1 

"  A  cow  of  the  Swiss  race,  having  a  white  skin, 
spotted  with  red,  is  mentioned  by  M.  Girou  as  having 
produced  five  calves,  only  one  of  which,  a  female,  re- 
sembled the  bull,  and  four  males  which  were  like 
their  mother,  both  in  the  ground-color  of  the  skin  and 
the  distribution  of  the  spots. 

"  Instances  of  this  nature  have  been  observed  by 
every  one  in  possession  of  a  herd  of  cattle ;  it  is  never 
expected  that  the  produce  should  always  resemble  the 
bull  in  color ;  even  though  his  color  may  predominate 
in  a  herd,  sufficient  variety  never  fails  to  appear. 
Black-and-white  kittens  are  every  day  produced  from 
cats  one  of  which  is  wholly  black  and  the  other 
wholly  white.  A  black  buck  and  a  white  doe  have 
produced  at  one  time  a  black-and-white  fawn,  and,  at 
another  time,  one  entirely  black,  except  a  spot  above 
the  hoof."3 

The  white  feet  and  face  of  the  celebrated  horse 
Dexter  are  characteristic  of  his  dam  and  grandam, 
who  transmitted  the  same  marks,  with  great  uniform- 
ity, to  their  offspring.* 

1  See  "The  Mule,"  by  Riley,  pp.  22,  40. 

8  Journal  of  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society ,  1857-'59,  p.  23. 

3  National  Live-Stock  Journal,  1876,  p.  67. 


250  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Mr.  Roberts  reports  the  case  of  a  horse  with  two 
curbs.  The  sire  was  free  from  defects ;  but  a  sister 
in  the  same  stable  had  two  curbs ;  their  dam  had  two 
curbs,  and  a  foal  of  hers  by  another  horse  had  also 
two  curbs,  showing  conclusively  that  the  defect  was 
transmitted  by  the  dam.1 

The  statements  of  Mr.  Walker  have  been  so  often 
quoted,  and  his  theory  so  generally  accepted,  that  we 
must  be  permitted  to  quote  some  of  his  cases  and  his 
inferences  from  them  :  "  Of  the  power  of  the  horse 
to  communicate,  in  a  cross,  his  skeleton,  and  therefore 
his  locomotive  system  generally,  or,  in  other  words, 
his  general  shape  and  character,  Mr.  Knight  gives  an 
interesting  example." a 

Then  follows  Mr.  Knight's  case :  "  I  have  obtained 
offspring,"  he  says,  "from  Norwegian  pony  mares 
and  the  London  dray-horse,  of  which  the  legs  are  pre- 
ternativrally  shorty  and  the  shoulders  and  body  preter- 
naturally  deep,  and  the  animal  of  course  preternatural- 
ly  strong.  .  .  .  The  offspring  of  my  Norwegian  mares, 
as  always  happens  in  similar  cases,  had  legs  as  short  as 
their  mothers  at  birth ;  but  the  male  parent,  the  dray- 
horse,  caused  their  legs  to  grow  greatly  stronger,  and 
their  joints  and  bodies  generally  much  larger,  although 
the  legs  remained  short." 

"  Thus  in  equine  crosses,"  says  Mr.  "Walker,  in  the 
paragraph  immediately  following  the  quotation  from 
Mr.  Knight,  "  the  male  gives  the  locomotive  system, 
the  female  the  vital  one." 

A  theory  founded  on  such  inferences,  from  such 

1  "The  Horse,"  by  Youatt,  p.  35. 

2  Walker  on  "  Intermarriage,"  p.  187. 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  251 

facts,  would  hardly  seem  to  require  further  notice, 
but  we  must  not  overlook  some  of  its  applications 
that  are  of  practical  interest.  "A  and  B,"  says  Mr. 
Walker,  "  who  are  more  or  less  perfectly  crossed,  may 
have  very  different  vital  and  locomotive  systems :  of 
their  immediate  progeny,  C  may  have  the  vital  system 
of  A  and  the  locomotive  system  of  B ;  and  ~D  may, 
on  the  contrary,  have  the  locomotive  system  of  A  and 
the  vital  system  of  B  (for,  in  a  feeble  or  imperfect 
cross,  such  variation  may  occur)  ;  and,  of  the  progeny 
of  these  last,  E  may  have  from  C  the  vital  system  of 
A,  and  from  D  the  locomotive  system  of  A ;  and  F 
may  have  from  C  the  locomotive  system  of  B,  and 
from  D  the  vital  system  of  B.  Thus  A  and  B  may 
be  reformed  in  the  third  generation."  1 

The  statement,  in  its  simplest  form,  is  that  the 
grandchildren  E  and  F  are  identical  with  the  grand- 
parents A  and  B  in  organization,  while  the  parents  C 
and  D  are  each  one-half  A  and  one-half  B. 

The  absurdity  of  this  proposition  will  be  readily 
seen  in  its  application  to  a  particular  case. 

According  to  the  theory  a  pure  Devon  bull,  bred 
to  a  pure  Short-Horn  cow,  may  produce  a  bull-calf 
with  the  external  organization  of  the  Devon  and  the 
internal  organization  of  the  Short-Horn ;  the  same 
pair  might  also  produce  a  heifer-calf  with  the  external 
organization  of  the  Short-Horn  and  the  internal  or- 
ganization of  the  Devon.  With  this  division  of  the 
organization  it  follows  that,  if  the  two  cross-bred  ani- 
mals are  bred  together,  the  offspring  in  one  instance 

1  Walker,  loc.  cit.,  p.  199.     A  similar  statement  in  regard  to  the 
cross  of  the  Arab  horse  may  be  found  in  the  same  work,  p.  183. 


252  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

may  inherit  the  external  Short-Horn  characters  of  one 
parent  and  the  internal  Short-Horn  characters  of  the 
other  parent,  and  thus  be  a  pure  Short-Horn ;  and,  in 
another  instance,  the  external  characters  of  the  Devon 
may  be  inherited  from  one  parent  and  the  internal 
characters  of  the  Devon  from  the  other  parent,  and 
thus  be  a  pure  Devon.  In  other  words,  a  pure  Devon 
and  a  pure  Short-Horn  may,  according  to  the  theory, 
be  produced  from  the  same  pair  of  cross-bred  animals, 
which  is  not  only  absurd,  but  in  direct  conflict  with 
all  the  known  facts  in  cross-breeding.  If  the  external 
characteristics  are  represented  by  the  numerator  of  a 
fraction  and  the  internal  characteristics  are  represent- 
ed by  the  denominator,  the  inherited  characters  of  the 
offspring,  according  to  Mr.  Walker,  may  be  clearly 
represented  in  the  following  diagram,  in  which  D 
stands  for  Devon  and  S  for  Short-Horn. 


Original  Parents.  First  Produce. 


Mr.  Orton,  who  was  apparently  aware  of  the  in- 
consistency involved  in  the  application  of  this  theory 
to  extreme  cases,  makes  an  admission  that  is  fatal  to 
the  theory  he  advocates.  He  says :  "  I  do  not  mean 
to  imply  or  state  that  in  all  cases  the  law  operates 
with  the  precision  I  have  above  stated,  for  there  are 
certain  controlling  influences  which  confuse  and  mod- 


RELATIVE  INFLUENCE  OF  PARENTS.  253 

ify,  and  in  some  cases  almost  seem  to  set  aside  the  law. 

C/     •/    ' 

I  do  not  mean  it  to  be  inferred  that  either  parent 
gives  either  set  of  organs  uninfluenced  by  the  other 
parent,  but  merely  that  the  leading  characteristics  and 
qualities  of  both  sets  of  organs  are  due  to  the  male  on 
the  one  side  and  the  female  on  the  other,  the  opposite 
parent  modifying  them  only." ' 

It  must  be  obvious,  from  the  facts  already  present- 
ed, that  the  half-and-half  theory  of  generation  cannot 
be  true.* 

The  characteristics  of  one  parent  may  sometimes 
be  transposed,  in  some  unaccountable  manner,  through 
the  supplementary  influence  of  the  other  parent,  as  in 
the  following  remarkable  case  reported  to  me  by  Dr. 
H.  B.  Shank,  of  Lansing,  Michigan:  A  white  cat 
with  a  small  black  patch,  consisting  of  a  few  hairs,  on 
her  forehead,  had  kittens  by  a  tomcat  that  was  en- 
tirely black.  The  kittens  were  all  black,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  patch  on  the  forehead,  which 
was  white.  The  white  patch  on  the  kittens  occupied 
the  same  position,  and  it  was  also  of  the  same  size,  as 
the  black  patch  on  the  forehead  of  the  mother. 

The  relative  influence  of  parents  upon  their  off- 
spring evidently  depends  upon  conditions  that  cannot 
in  all  cases  be  determined.  When  the  characteristics 
of  one  parent  have  been  fixed  by  the  inheritance  of 
the  same  peculiarities  for  many  generations,  it  will 
undoubtedly  prove  to  be  prepotent  in  the  transmission 

1  Journal  of  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society,  1857-'59,  p.  25. 

8  Darwin's  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  pp. 
88, 432 ;  "  Heredity,"  by  Ribot,  p.  166 ;  Journal  of  the  Highland  Agri- 
cultural Society,  1857-'59,  p.  21. 


254  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

of  its  characters  if  the  other  parent  has  a  less  stable 
organization,  but  this  will  not  prevent  the  inheritance 
of  the  peculiarities  of  both  parents  that  are  not  in- 
cluded in  the  dominant  characteristics. 

The  cases  of  cross-heredity,  or  the  transmission  by 
one  sex  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  other,  in  connection 
with  cases  like  the  last  above  cited,  are,  however,  suffi- 
cient to  show  that  there  are  laws  governing  the  trans- 
mission of  characters  that,  in  the  present  state  of 
knowledge,  we  are  unable  to  define. 


CHAPTEE  XII. 

INFLUENCE   OF   A   PREVIOUS   IMPREGNATION. 

THE  influence  of  the  male  in  the  process  of  pro- 
creation is  not  limited  to  his  immediate  offspring,  but 
extends  also,  through  the  female  that  he  has  impreg- 
nated, to  her  offspring  by  another  male. 

Paradoxical  as  this  statement  may  appear,  there 
are  many  well-authenticated  cases  on  record  that  can- 
not be  satisfactorily  explained  on  any  other  hypothesis. 

In  1815  a  chestnut  mare,  seven-eighths  Arabian, 
belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Morton,  was  covered  by  a 
quagga  (a  species  of  zebra) :  the  hybrid  produce  re- 
sembled the  sire  in  color  and  in  many  peculiarities  of 
form. 

"In  1817,  1818,  and  1821,  the  same  mare  was 
covered  by  a  very  fine  black  Arabian  horse,  and  pro- 
duced successively  three  foals,  and,  although  she  had 
not  seen  the  quagga  since  1816,  they  all  bore  his 
curious  and  unequivocal  markings."  * 

1  This  remarkable  case  was  first  published  in  the  "  Philosophical 
Transactions,"  1821,  p.  20.  It  has  been  repeatedly  cited  by  writers  on 
breeding,  some  of  whom  have  apparently  been  misled  by  making  quo- 
tations at  second  hand.  A  writer  in  the  Farmer's  Magazine  mentions 
the  case  of  "  a  thorough-bred  mare  belonging  to  Sir  Gore  Ousely,"  that 
was  covered  by  a  zebra,  and,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Blane,  states  that 
"  Lord  Morton  had  a  mare  covered  by  a  quagga — a  kind  of  large  ass," 


256  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

It  is  stated,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  William  Good- 
win, veterinary  surgeon  to  her  Majesty,  that  "  several 
of  the  mares  in  that  establishment"  (royal  stud  at 
Hampton  Court)  "  had  foals  in  one  year,  which  were 
by  Actseon,  but  which  presented  exactly  the  marks  of 
the  horse  Colonel,  a  white  hind-fetlock,  for  instance, 
and  a  white  mark  or  stripe  on  the  face ;  and  Actaeon 
was  perfectly  free  from  white.  The  mares  had  all 
bred  from  Colonel  the  previous  year." 1 

"  A  colt,  the  property  of  the  Earl  of  Suffield,  got 
by  Laurel,  so  resembled  another  horse  (Camel)  that  it 
was  whispered,  nay,  even  asserted,  at  Newmarket,  that 
he  must  have  been  got  by  Camel.  It  was  ascertained, 
however,  that  the  only  relation  which  the  colt  bore  to 
Camel  was,  that  the  latter  had  served  his  mother  the 
previous  season." a 

Mr.  George  T.  Allman,  of  Tennessee,  gives  the 
following  case,  that  came  under  his  own  observation : 
"  I  bred  a  bay  mare,  black  points,  to  Watson,  a  son  of 
Lexington,  who  is  a  golden  chestnut,  large  star,  both 

the  results  in  each  case  being  the  same.  As  the  mare  belonging  to 
Lord  Morton,  that  was  covered  by  a  quagga,  was  afterward  sent  to  Sir 
Gore  Ousely,  and  produced  colts  by  a  black  Arabian  horse,  the  two 
cases  are  readily  resolved  into  one.  (See  Darwin's  "  Animals  and  Plants 
under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p.  484 ;  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol.  xxxv.,  p. 
130;  Walker  on  "Intermarriage,"  p.  244;  "Principles  of  Breeding," 
by  Goodale,  p.  46;  British  and  Foreign  Medico-Chirurgical  Review, 
July,  1863,  p.  183.) 

1  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol.  xxxv.,  p.  130.  See  also  "Principles  of 
Breeding,"  by  Goodale,  p.  47 ;  Journal  of  the  Highland  Agricultural 
Society,  1857-'59,  p.  26. 

8  Journal  of  the  HigJdand  Agricultural  Society,  1857-'59,  p.  26. 
See  also  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  by  Goodale,  p.  47 ;  Farmer's  Maga- 
zine, vol.  xxxv.,  p.  130. 


INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.      257 

hind  and  near  front  ankles  white.  After  dropping 
her  foal  to  Watson,  I  bred  the  same  mare  to  my  sad- 
dle-stallion, Prince  Pulaski,  a  very  dark  chestnut,  no 
white  save  a  very  small  star ;  this  produce  was  a  fac 
simile  of  Watson  in  every  particular ."  l 

"  Alexander  Morrison,  Esq.,  of  Bognie,  had  a  fine 
Clydesdale  mare  which,  in  1843,  was  served  by  a 
Spanish  ass  and  produced  a  mule.  She  afterward  had 
a  colt  by  a  horse,  which  bore  a  very  marked  likeness 
to  a  mule — seen  at  a  distance,  every  one  set  it  down 
at  once  as  a  mule.  The  ears  are  nine  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  girth  not  quite  six  feet,  and  stands 
above  sixteen  hands  high.  The  hoofs  are  so  long  and 
narrow  that  there  is  a  difficulty  in  shoeing  them,  and 
the  tail  is  thin  and  scanty.  He  is  a  beast  of  indomi- 
table energy  and  durability,  and  is  highly  prized  by 
his  owner." a 

A  similar  case  is  recorded  by  Dr.  Burgess,  of  Ded- 
ham,  Massachusetts,  who  says,  "  From  a  mare  which 
had  once  been  served  by  a  jack,  I  have  seen  a  colt  so 
long-eared,  sharp-backed,  and  rat-tailed,  that  I  stopped 
a  second  time  to  see  if  he  were  not  a  mule." 3 

Dr.  H.  B.  Shank,  of  Lansing,  Michigan,  informs 
me  that  a  mare .  belonging  to  himself  having  pro- 
duced a  mule,  was  afterward  bred  to  a  Morgan  stall- 
ion with  remarkably  fine  ears ;  the  ears  of  the  colt 
were  large  and  coarse,  presenting  a  close  resemblance 
to  those  of  a,  mule.  A  second  colt  produced  by  the 

1  Rural  Sun,  as  quoted  in  National  Live-Stock  Journal,  June,  1877, 
p.  245. 

8  "Principles  of  Breeding,"  by  Goodale,  p.  48. 
3  Country  Gentleman,  1870,  p.  426. 
12 


258  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

mare  to  the  same  stallion  had  the  head  and  ears  of  its 
sire. 

A  repetition  of  the  procreative  function  was  appar- 
ently necessary,  on  the  part  of  the  stallion,  to  over- 
come the  transmitted  influence  of  the  jack  remaining 
from  a  former  impregnation.  Similar  cases  have  fre- 
quently been  observed  by  persons  engaged  in  mule- 
breeding. 

"  A  pure  Aberdeenshire  heifer  was  served  with  a 
pure  Teeswater  bull,  by  which  she  had  a  first-cross 
calf.  The  following  season  the  same  cow  was  served 
with  a  pure  Aberdeenshire  bull ;  the  produce  was  a 
m?ss-calf,  which,  when  two  years  old,  had  very  long 
horns,  the  parents  being  both  polled. 

"  Again,  a  pure  Aberdeenshire  cow  was  served,  in 
1845,  with  a  cross-bull — that  is  to  say,  an  animal  pro- 
duced between  a  first-cross  cow  and  a  pure  Teeswater 
bull.  To  this  bull  she  had  a  cross-calf.  Next  season 
she  was  served  with  a  pure  Ayrshire  [Aberdeenshire  ?] 
bull ;  the  produce  was  quite  a  cross  in  shape  and  color." ' 

Mr.  Shaw,  of  Leochel-Cushnie,  "put  six  pure- 
horned  and  black-faced  sheep  to  a  white-faced  horn- 
less Leicester  ram,  and  others  of  his  flock  to  a  dun- 
faced  Down  ram.  The  produce  were  crosses  between 
the  two.  In  the  following  year  they  were  put  to  a 
ram  of  their  own  breed,  also  pure.  All  the  lambs 
were  hornless  and  had  brown  faces.  Another  year  he 
again  put  them  to  a  pure-bred  horned  and  black-faced 
ram.  There  was  a  smaller  proportion  this  year  im- 
pure ;  but  two  of  the  produce  were  polled,  one  dun- 

1  Quoted  from  Dr.  Harvey's  paper  on  "  Cross-Breeding,"  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society,  1857-'69,  p.  26. 


INFLUENCE   OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.      259 

faced,  with  very  small  horns,  and  three  were  white- 
faced — showing  the  partial  influence  of  the  cross  even 
to  the  third  year."  1 

"  A  small  flock  of  ewes  belonging  to  Dr.  W.  Wells, 
in  the  island  of  Grenada,  were  served  by  a  ram  pro- 
cured for  the  purpose — the  ewes  were  all  white  and 
woolly;  the  ram  was  quite  different — of  a  chocolate 
color,  and  hairy,  like  a  goat.  The  progeny  were  of 
course  crosses,  but  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  the 
male  parent.  The  next  season  Dr.  Wells  obtained  a 
ram  of  precisely  the  same  breed  as  the  ewes,  but  the 
progeny  showed  distinct  marks  of  resemblance  to  the 
former  ram  in  color  and  covering. 

"  The  same  thing  occurred  on  neighboring  estates 
under  like  circumstances." a 

Mr.  Darwin  cites  the  following  case  from  the 
"Philosophical  Transactions,"  1821:  "Mr.  Giles  put 
a  sow  of  Lord  Western's  black-and-white  Essex  breed 
to  a  wild-boar  of  a  deep  chestnut-color,  and  the  '  pigs 
produced  partook  in  appearance  of  both  boar  and  sow, 
but  in  some  the  chestnut-color  of  the  boar  strongly 
prevailed.'  After  the  boar  had  long  been  dead  the 
sow  was  put  to  a  boar  of  her  own  black-and-white 
breed — a  kind  which  is  well  known  to  breed  very 
true,  and  never  to  show  any  chestnut-color — yet  from 
this  union  the  sow  produced  some  young  pigs  which 
were  plainly  marked  with  the  same  chestnut-tint  as  in 
the  first  litter." 8 

F.  Sherman,  of  Ash  Grove  Farm,  Fairfax  County, 

1  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol.  xxxv.,  p.  130. 

2  "Principles  of  Breeding,"  by  Goodale,  p.  49. 

8  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p.  485. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Virginia,  relates  his  experience  as  follows :  "  Three 
years  ago  one  of  my  Essex  gilts  was  served  by  a  little 
sandy '  scrub '  boar  that  slipped  through  the  fence  from 
the  road-side.  .  .  .  The  result  was  a  litter  of  four  pigs, 
two  pure  black,  the  others  sandy,  with  black  spots. 
In  due  time  she  was  again  served  by  one  of  my  Essex 
boars.  Two  pigs  of  the  resulting  litter  were  again 
sandy,  with  black  spots.  ...  To  give  this  instance  its 
just  weight  as  evidence  on  the  point  in  question,  it  is 
proper  to  state  that  the  sow,  and  the  boar  by  which 
she  was  served  the  second  time,  were  pedigree  ani- 
mals of  undoubted  purity  and  excellent  descent ;  that 
no  pigs  except  thorough-bred  Essex  are  kept  on  the 
farm  for  any  purpose,  and  that  sows  brought  here  for 
service  by  boars  are  not  allowed  to  run  with  my  ani- 
mals. After  getting  one  litter  of  half-blood?,  thorough 
precautions  were  taken  to  prevent  a  repetition  of  the 
mishap." l 

Two  similar  cases  have  come  under  my  own  ob- 
servation, under  circumstances  that  do  not  admit  of 
doubt  as  to  the  parentage  of  the  offspring  that  in- 
herited a  stain  through  a  previous  impregnation  of 
their  dam.  Several  years  ago  a  Chester  white  sow, 
belonging  to  the  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College, 
had  a  litter  of  cross-bred  pigs  by  an  Essex  boar.  The 
pigs  wrere  all  more  or  less  spotted  with  black,  but  in 
several  of  them  the  white  predominated. 

The  next  season  the  same  sow  had  pigs  by  a  pure 
Suffolk  boar,  but  they  all  had  black  spots,  and  some 
of  them  were  more  than  one-half  black.  One  remark- 
able feature  of  this  case  was  the  peculiar  distribution 

1  Country  Gentleman,  1877,  p.  462. 


INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.      261 

of  the  color  in  several  instances.  In  some  the  front 
half  of  the  body  was  white  and  the  back  half  of  the 
body  black,  while  in  others  the  colors  were  reversed? 
the  front  half  of  the  body  being  black  and  the  back 
half  white.  The  line  of  demarkation  between  the 
black  and  the  white  was  so  regular  and  well-defined 
that,  if  it  had  been  possible  to  divide  the  two  animals 
transversely  on  the  line  between  the  white  and  the 
black,  and  transpose  the  parts  before  putting  together 
again,  a  purely  white  pig  and  a  purely  black  pig  might 
have  been  made  from  the  two  that  were  half  black 
and  half  white. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  in  this  connection  that  E. 
W.  Cottrell,  in  speaking  of  a  cross  of  the  Suffolk  and 
Essex  swine  says :  "  One  peculiar  feature  with  the 
color  of  this  cross  is,  that  invariably  the  black  is  in 
excess  upon  the  hind-part  of  the  animal,  while  the 
white  predominates  upon  its  fore-parts.  I  have  seen 
them  one  half  pure  black  and  the  other  half  pure 
white,  with  the  dividing  line  where  the  colors  meet 
forming  a  circle  around  the  body  at  the  middle." l 

In  July,  1877,  in  company  with  my  friend  Dr.  H. 
B.  Shank,  of  Lansing,  Michigan,  I  visited  the  farm 
of  Mr.  A.  !N".  Gillett,  in  the  town  of  Delta,  Ingham 
County,  where  we  saw  a  litter  of  pigs  out  of  a  pure 
Berkshire  sow,  and  got  by  a  pure  Berkshire  boar. 

More  than  one-half  of  the  pigs  were  apparently 
Poland-China  in  the  form  of  the  head,  and  their 
bodies  were  spotted  with  sandy-white.  We  were  in- 
formed by  Mr.  Gillett  that  the  preceding  year  the 

1  Michigan  Farmer,  as  quoted  in  William  Smith's  "  Catalogue  of 
Breeding  Swine,"  p.  32. 


262  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

dam  of  these  pigs  had  produced  a  litter  of  pigs,  by  a 
Poland-China  boar,  that  were  marked  in  the  same 
manner  with  sandy-white  spots.  The  sow  was  bred 
under  my  direction,  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural 
College,  three  years  ago,  and  the  stock  from  which 
she  was  descended  had  not  shown  any  variations  from 
the  pure  Berkshire  type. 

Mr.  George  T.  Allmah,  of  Tennessee,  in  the  paper 
noticed  below,  says :  "  I  bought  a  trio  of  Neapolitan 
hogs,  a  boar  and  two  sows ;  I  first  bred  a  very  fine, 
pure-bred  Berkshire  sow  to  the  Neapolitan  boar ;  after 
farrowing,  I  bred  her  to  Toronto  Chief,  a  Berkshire 
boar,  bred  by  Bush  Brothers,  Clark  County,  Kentucky 
(from  an  imported  pair),  and  every  time  the  sow  far- 
rowed, up  to  her  death,  she  produced  pigs  with  little 
or  no  hair,  like  the  Neapolitan." l 

Mr.  Darwin,  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Bowerbank, 
gives  the  following  striking  case :  "A  black,  hairless, 
Barbary  bitch,  was  first  impregnated  by  a  mongrel 
spaniel,  with  long  brown  hair,  and  she  produced  five 
puppies,  three  of  which  were  hairless  and  two  covered 
with  short  brown  hair.  The  next  time  she  was  put 
to  a  full  black,  hairless,  Barbary  dog;  but  the  mis- 
chief had  been  implanted  in  the  mother,  and  again 
about  half  the  litter  looked  like  pure  Barbarys,  and 
the  other  half  like  the  short-haired  progeny  of  the 
first  father." 9 

The  following  case  is  given  by  Mr.  George  T.  All- 
man,  of  Tennessee  :  "  I  bought  at  <  "Woodburn,'  Ken- 
tucky, the  shepherd-dog  York,  from  the  pair  the  late 

1  Loc.  tit.,  p.  245. 

8  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p.  iii. 


INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.      263 

B.  A.  Alexander  imported.  (York  was  got  by  the 
famous  Spring.)  At  the  same  time  I  bought  a  bitch, 
Fannie  (Scotch  collie),  first  produce  of  the  imported 
pair  owned  by  H.  A.  Alexander.  Fannie  and  York 
were  the  only  dogs  on  the  farm,  and  are  both  still 
living.  Fannie  came  in  heat  three  different  times, 
was  put  in  a  stall  and  secured  from  any  intrusion,  but 
she  would  not  allow  York  to  serve  her.  The  third 
time  she  came  in  heat  a  young  man,  who  was  out 
hunting  near  my  place  with  a  liver-and- white  colored 
pointer,  suggested  that  I  let  his  dog  into  the  kennel. 
I  did  so,  and  he  served  Fannie,  and  afterward  the 
shepherd-dog  York  did  also.  Half  -of  the  litter  of 
pups  were  colored  precisely  as  the  pointer,  and  the 
remainder  were  about  equally  divided  in  color,  part 
taking  after  York  and  part  after  Fannie.  Since  then 
Fannie  has  been  coupled  only  with  pure  shepherd- 
dogs,  yet  every  litter  of  pups  has  from  one  to  two 
w&rked  precisely  like  the  pointer  that  first  served  her."  * 

The  same  paper  contains  the  two  following  cases, 
given  by  G.  A.  Baxter,  M.  D.,  of  Chattanooga,  Geor- 
gia: "Colonel  L ,  of  Chattanooga,  had  a  white 

English  bull-bitch,  which  by  chance  took  a  dog  of 
different  species.  Though  he  ever  afterward  tried  to 
preserve  the  white  breed  pure  from  her,  she  continued 
until  her  death,  with  every  litter,  to  bear  one  or  two 
yellow  pups.  Some  of  the  pups  I  have  seen  myself, 
and  he  yet  owns  one  in  Chattanooga." 

"Mr.  C ,  of  Chattanooga,  has  a  small-sized, 

bluish-tinted  shepherd,  of  a  peculiar  breed,  and  im- 

1  Rural  Sun,  as  quoted  in  National  Live-Stock  Journal,  1877,  p. 
245. 


264:  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

ported,  I  think,  having  very  straight  hair.  Three 
years  ago  this  bitch  was  bred  by  him  to  another  shep- 
herd of  a  different  species — a  large,  shaggy-haired 
breed.  I  saw  her  last  litter  of  pups,  after  she  had 
been  confined  during  the  whole  period  of  heat  with  a 
dog  of  her  own  species,  and,  without  knowing  the 
fact  of  her  having  been  so  bred,  remarked  upon  the 
singular  difference  in  size,  shape,  and  appearance,  of 
two  of  the  litter  from  the  remainder — they  being  half 
as  large  again,  and  seemingly  of  another  breed  entire- 
ly from  her  or  the  father.  I  was  told  then  of  the 
above-mentioned  facts,  which  explained  conclusively 
the  result,  and  I  think  logically  and  truly."  l 

Prof.  Agassiz  states  that  he  had  "  experimented 
with  a  Newfoundland  bitch,  by  coupling  her  with  a 
water-dog,  and  the  progeny  were  partly  water-dog, 
partly  Newfoundland,  and  the  remainder  a  mixture 
of  both.  Future  connections  of  the  same  bitch  with 
a  greyhound  produced  a  similar  litter,  with  hardly  a 
trace  of  the  greyhound.  He  had  bred  rabbits  with 
the  laws  established  by  this  experiment,  and  had  at 
last  so  impregnated  a  white  rabbit  with  the  gray  rab- 
bit that  connection  of  this  white  rabbit  with  a  black 
male  invariably  produced  gray." a 

A  celebrated  breeder  of  Short-Horns,  of  my  ac- 
quaintance, bred  the  females  of  a  light-colored  family 
to  a  red  bull,  and  afterward  to  a  bull  of  their  own 
family ;  and  he  succeeded,  in  this  manner,  in  produc- 
ing the  desired  shades  of  color  in  the  offspring  of  the 
light-colored  females. 

1  National  Live-Stock  Journal,  1877,  p.  245. 

*  "Agricultural  Report  of  Massachusetts,"  1863,  p.  57. 


INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.      265 

The  same  influence  has  been  observed  in  the  hu- 
man family.  "  A  woman  may  have,  by  a  second  hus- 
band, children  who  resemble  a  former  husband,  and 
this  is  particularly  well  marked  in  certain  instances 
by  the  color  of  the  hair  and  eyes. 

"A  white  woman,  who  has  had  children  by  a 
negro,  may  subsequently  bear  children  to  a  white 
man,  these  children  presenting  some  of  the  unmis- 
takable peculiarities  of  the  negro  race." 1 

Several  theories  have  been  advanced  to  explain 
the  manner  in  which  this  peculiar  influence  has  been 
transmitted. 

As  the  first  cases  that  attracted  the  attention  of 
physiologists  were  observed  among  mammals,  it  was 
supposed  that  the  mother  was  impressed  with  the 
paternal  characteristics  of  the  foetus  during  its  intra- 
uterine  existence. 

In  his  remarks  on  this  subject,  Dr.  Carpenter 
says :  "  Some  of  these  cases  appear  referable  to  the 
strong  mental  impression  left  by  the  first  male  parent 
upon  the  female ;  but  there  are  others  which  seem  to 
render  it  more  likely  that  the  blood  of  the  female  has 
imbibed  from  that  of  the  foetus,  through  the  placental 
circulation,  some  of  the  attributes  which  the  latter  has 

1  "  Physiology  of  Man,"  by  Flint,  vol.  v.,  p.  347.  See  also  "  Human 
Physiology,"  by  Carpenter,  p.  970 ;  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology,"  vol.  iv.,  pp.  1341-1365  ;  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultu- 
ral Society,  vol.  xvi.,  p.  23  ;  British  and  Foreign  Medico- Chirurgical 
Review,  July,  1863,  p.  183.  Additional  references  are  made  by  Dar- 
win to  cases  of  this  kind  of  influence  that  I  have  not  an  opportunity  to 
consult,  as  follows :  Broun,  in  his  "  Geschichte  du  Natur,"  1843,  B.  11, 
S.  127;  and  Martin's  "History  of  the  Dog,"  1845,  p.  104;  "Animals 
and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p.  485,  note. 


266  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

derived  from  its  male  parent,  and  that  the  female  may 
communicate  these,  with  those  proper  to  herself,  to  the 
subsequent  offspring  of  a  different  male  parentage." l 

Mr.  James  McGillivray,  a  veterinary  surgeon  of 
Huntly,  presents  essentially  the  same  theory,  as  he 
believes  that,  when  a  female  of  any  pure  breed  has 
been  impregnated  by  a  male  of  another  breed,  she  be- 
comes a  cross,  "  the  purity  of  her  blood  being  lost  in 
consequence  of  her  connection  with  the  foreign  ani- 
mal."9 

Dr.  Harvey,  who  had  advocated  the  same  theory, 
afterward  observes :  "  Since  then  I  have  learned  that 
many  among  the  agricultural  body  in  this  district  are 
familiar,  to  a  degree  that  is  annoying  to  them,  with 
the  facts  there  adduced  in  illustration  of  it — finding 
that  after  breeding  crosses  their  cows,  though  served 
with  bulls  of  their  own  breed,  yield  crosses  still,  or 
rather  mongrels ;  that  they  were  already  impressed 
with  the  idea  of  contamination  of  blood  as  the  cause 
of  the  phenomenon ;  that  the  doctrine  so  intuitively 
commended  itself  to  their  minds,  as  soon  as  stated, 
that  they  fancied  they  were  told  nothing  but  wThat 
they  knew  before." 3 

If  the  influence  of  the  male  upon  the  offspring  of 
the  same  mother  by  another  male  were  limited  to  the 
class  of  mammals,  this  theory  might  be  accepted  as 
a  plausible  explanation  of  the  cases  that  have  been 
presented  ;  but  there  are  instances  in  which  a  similar 

1  "  Human  Physiology,"  p.  970.     . 

2  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  p.  52. 

3  Edinburgh  Journal  of  Medical  Science,  1849,  as  quoted  by  Goodalc, 
loc.  cit.t  p.  63. 


INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.      267 

influence  has  been  observed  in  fowls — where  the  egg 
is  separated  from  the  mother  before  the  embryo  is 
developed — that  cannot  have  been  produced  by  a  con- 
tamination of  the  blood  of  the  mother  by  that  of  the 
embryo.  But  another  theory  that  has  been  advanced 
to  explain  the  manner  in  which  this  influence  is  trans- 
mitted in  mammals  must  be  noticed. 

Prof.  James  Law,  after  mentioning  some  of  the 
theories  that  had  been  advanced  to  explain  the  phe- 
nomena under  discussion,  says :  "  But  a  simpler  and 
more  satisfactory  explanation  may  be  found.  It  is  a 
well-known  pathological  fact  that  adjacent  cells  tend 
to  ingraft  their  plastic  or  formative  powers  upon  each 
other.  I  prick  my  skin  with  a  needle.  Immediately 
the  injured  cells  and  nuclei  undergo  a  rapid  increase 
in  size  and  numbers,  but  the  effect  does  not  end  there ; 
those  adjacent  take  on  a  similar  action,  and  the  extent 
of  the  resulting  inflammation  is  only  limited  by  that 
of  the  injury  and  the  susceptibility  of  the  parts. 
Again,  in  placing  a  slice  of  epidermis  in  the  middle 
of  a  raw  sore  we  inoculate  the  cells  of  the  adjoining 
granulations,  and  empower  them  to  develop  epidermic 
structure.  How,  then,  can  we  avoid  the  conclusion 
that  the  impregnated  ovum  impresses  its  own  charac- 
ters on  the  mass  of  the  decidua,  and,  through  this,  on 
the  maternal  placenta,  and  that  this  in  turn  impresses 
its  characters  on  the  decidua  and  embryo  of  the  next 
succeeding  generation  ? " * 

This  theory  is  certainly  an  ingenious  one,  but  it 
does  not  furnish  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  all  of 

1  "  Reports  and  Papers  of  the  American  Public  Health  Association," 
vol.  ii.,  p.  263. 


268  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

the  observed  cases  of  this  peculiar  influence ;  and  it 
also  fails  to  take  into  account  certain  physiological 
facts  that  are  difficult  to  reconcile  with  it.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  placenta  and  decidua  are  temporary 
organs  that  disappear  at  the  time  of  parturition,  and 
that  even  the  mucous  membrane  itself  is  removed  and 
replaced  with  new  tissue. 

Dr.  Dalton  says  :  "  Another  very  remarkable  phe- 
nomenon connected  with  pregnancy  and  parturition 
is  the  appearance  in  the  uterus  of  a  new  mucous  mem- 
firane,  growing  underneath  the  old,  and  ready  to  take 
the  place  of  the  latter  after  its  discharge.  If  the  in- 
ternal surface  of  the  body  of  the  uterus  be  examined 
immediately  after  parturition,  it  will  be  seen  that  at 
the  spot  where  the  placenta  was  attached  every  trace 
of  mucous  membrane  has  disappeared. 

"  The  muscular  fibres  of  the  uterus  are  here  per- 
fectly exposed  and  bare,  while  the  mouths  of  the 
ruptured  uterine  sinus  are  also  visible,  with  their  thin, 
ragged  edges  hanging  into  the  cavity  of  the  uterus, 
and  their  orifices  plugged  with  more  or  less  abundant 
bloody  coagula.  Over  the  rest  of  the  uterine  surface 
the  decidua  vera  has  also  disappeared.  Here,  how- 
ever, notwithstanding  the  loss  of  the  original  mucous 
membrane,  the  muscular  fibres  are  not  perfectly  bare, 
but  are  covered  with  a  thin,  semitransparent  film,  of 
a  whitish  color  and  soft  consistency. 

"  This  film  is  an  imperfect  mucous  membrane,  of 
a  new  formation,  which  begins  to  be  produced  under- 
neath the  old  decidua  vera  as  early  as  the  beginning 
of  the  eighth  month." 1 

1  "Human  Physiology,"  pp.  621,  622. 


INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.     269 

"At  birth,"  says  Dr.  Marshall,  "the  embryonal 
vascular  portion  of  these  membranes,  whether  it  be  a 
diffused,  cotyledonous,  zonular,  or  discoidal  placenta, 
is  always  detached.  In  the  case  of  the  zonular  and 
discoidal  forms  of  the  placenta,  where  a  true  decidua 
is  developed,  a  part  of  the  maternal  tissues  is  also 
separated  at  the  same  time. 

"  Where  there  is  no  decidua,  as  in  the  diffuse  and 
cotyledonous  forms,  the  foetal  villi  are  merely  detached 
from  the  surfaces  or  recesses  into  which  they  fit.  In 
the  latter  cases  parts  of  the  maternal  tissues,  especially 
of  the  veins  and  venous  lacunae,  come  away," ' 

It  does  not  seem  probable  that  an  impression  re- 
ceived by  these  temporary  structures  should  be  trans- 
mitted, through  their  influence,  to  subsequent  impreg- 
nations. 

The  numerous  instances  of  the  influence  of  a  previ- 
)iis  impregnation  upon  offspring  by  another  male  that 
have  been  observed  in  fowls,  to  which  we  now  direct 
our  attention,  must,  however,  be  fatal  to  this  theory, 
as  well  as  that  of  blood  contamination. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Smith,  of  Lexington,  Kentucky,  makes 
the  following  statement :  "  On  or  about  the  first  day 
of  February,  1873,  I  loaned  a  prime  Dark  Brahma 
cock,  that  was  a  good,  vigorous  bird,  to  Mr.  James 
Fought,  of  this  city.  He  put  him  with  a  lot  of  Light 
Brahma  hens,  with  which  a  Houdan  cock  had  been 
running  previously.  The  hens  laid,  set,  hatched,  and 

1  "  Outlines  of  Physiology,"  p.  960.  See  also  "Text-Book  of  Human 
Physiology,"  by  Flint,  p.  943 ;  Flint's  "  Physiology  of  Man,"  vol.  v., 
pp.  376,  454 ;  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology r"  vol,  v,,  p, 
659 ;  Carpenter's  "  Human  Physiology,"  p.  980. 


270  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

raised  their  chicks,  laid  and  hatched  again,  and  the 
second  litter  of  chicks  had  the  Houdan  marks.  There 
was  no  Houdan  blood  in  the  Light  Brahma  hens, 
neither  was  there  any  other  cock  with  the  hens  from 
the  time  he  got  the  Dark  Brahma  cock." l 

Mr.  A.  W.  Frizzell,  of  Baltimore  County,  Mary- 
land, makes  the  following  statement :  "  I  once  pur- 
chased a  trio  of  pure-bred  Dark  Brahma  fowls  from  a 
breeder  of  no  small  note,  and  a  trustworthy  man  (I 
speak  from  experience,  for  I  was  once  employed  by 
this  gentleman,  and  do  know  him  to  be  trustworthy), 
which  fowls  had  taken  the  first  premium  at  the  Car- 
roll County  (Kentucky)  Fair  in  1871.  I  brought  those 
fowls  home,  and  in  the  yard  was  also  a  Light  Brahma 
cock,  which  I  did  not  dispose  of  for  some  time,  and 
in  the  mean  time  he  was  mating  with  these  dark  hens ; 
any  effects  of  this  I  thought  would  soon  run  out. 
After  a  while  I  disposed  of  the  light  cock,  and  kept 
none  but  the  dark  one,  or  had  none  nearer  than  a 
mile.  Nevertheless,  three  years  afterward  I  see  those 
light,  or  half-light,  chicks  coming  from  those  two 
hens."2 

"  A  Mr.  Payne,  in  England,  had  two  Spanish  pul- 
lets running  with  both  a  Spanish  and  Cochin  cock. 
After  they  began  to  lay  the  Cochin  was  removed,  and 
six  weeks  after  the  eggs  were  saved  and  set ;  but  the 
chickens  were  feather-legged,  in  all  other  points  re- 
sembling the  Spanish. 

"  On  another  occasion  the  same  gentleman  allowed 

1  The  Poultry  World,  as  quoted  in  The  Country  Gentleman,  1873, 
p.  476. 

a  The  Country  Gentleman,  1877,  p.  151. 


INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.      271 

a  Black-red  game-hen,  which  laid  while  with  chickens, 
to  run  a  few  hours  with  a  Brown-red  cock,  and  nine 
eggs  produced  chickens,  which  all  resembled  the  fa- 
ther, or  Brown-red. 

"Another  English  gentleman,  when  residing  in 
Canada,  sold  his  Brahma  cock  and  one  hen,  allowing 
the  hen  left  to  run  afterward  with  a  Spangled  Ham- 
burg which  had  five  hens  of  his  own.  Every  egg 
laid  for  ten  days  produced  a  pure  Brahma  chick,  that 
laid  on  the  eleventh  day  was  a  half-breed. 

"  In  America,  a  Mr.  Woodward  bought  in  March 
some  Spanish  pullets  which  had  been  running  all  the 
winter  with  a  native  cock,  and,  though  no  eggs  were 
set  till  two  months  after  purchase,  all  the  chicks  even 
then  showed  the  native  points  in  a  high  degree. 

"Another  gentleman  breeding  Games,  finding  a 
neighbor's  feather-legged  Bantam  cock  come  over  his 
fence,  penned  his  fowls  in  securely,  and  saved  no  eggs 
for  a  month  after ;  but  several  chicks  still  had  feath- 
ered legs,  though  with  no  other  sign  of  the  cross."  * 

Mr.  E.  W.  Barnes,  of  Plympton,  "  allowed  a 
neighbor's  Brown  Leghorn  cock  to  pass  three  days 
among  his  pen  of  eight  one-year-old  Light  Brahma 
pullets,  <  for  experiment's  sake,'  he  said.  The  Brown 
Leghorn  cock  was  removed,  and  he  has  never  once 
had  anything  on  his  premises  since  but  the  Light 
Brahmas,  of  both  sexes,  c  pure.' 

"  From  the  eggs  set  within  a  week  after  the  Brown 
Leghorn  cock  was  sent  home  a  third  of  the  chicks, 
when  hatched,  came  brown,  speckled  -  brown,  or 
patched  with  brown,  that  same  summer. 

1  "  The  Illustrated  Book  of  Poultry,"  by  Wright,  pp.  129,  130. 


272  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

"  Out  of  the  eight  hens  he  saved  four  (which  were 
alive  a  year  ago),  and  last  season — two  years  after  the 
Brown  Leghorn  cock  was  dead — more  than  one-quarter 
of  Mr.  Barnes's  chicks,  bred  from  the  old  Light  Brah- 
ma hens  with  a  Light  Brahma  cock  only  since,  came 
spotted,  speckled,  and  splashed  with  brown  feathers." ' 

Mr.  Charles  H.  Edmonds,  of  Melrose,  "  allowed  a 
Sebright  cock  to  run  for  a  few  weeks  "  with  his  Light 
Brahma  fowls.  "  In  the  fall  his  Light  Brahma  chicks 
were  marked  with  distinct  Golden  Sebright  feathers, 
and  for  two  years  succeeding  this  marking  showed 
itself  on  scores  of  his  chicks,  from  this  very  flock  of 
Light  Brahmas,  when  the  Sebright  cock  had  been  gone 
from  his  premises  over  two  seasons." 8 

In  discussing  this  class  of  cases,  Mr.  Wright  re- 
marks: "But  the  fact  remains — proved  beyond  the 
possibility  of  doubt— that  again  and  again  hens  of  dif- 
ferent breeds,  and  female  animals  of  various  kinds, 
after  the  birth  of  half-bred  offspring,  have  ever  after- 
ward manifested  a  plainly-evident  tendency  to  pro- 
duce offspring  bearing  more  or  less  strong  traces  of 
the  same  characters.  This  tendency  greatly  varies, 
and  cannot  therefore  be  calculated ;  but  it  exists,  and 
tends  to  show  that  a  given  chick  may,  in  a  certain 
mythical  sense,  have  two  fathers,  or  rather  that  the 
progeny  of  one  bird  is  in  some  mysterious  way  modi- 
fied by  the  previous  union  with  another. 

"  The  most  probable  explanation  is,  that  as  habit 
is  the  developed  tendency  to  do  again  what  has  al- 
ready been  done,  so  the  female  reproductive  system, 

»  The  Poultry  World,  October,  1877,  p.  326. 
9  Ibid.,  p.  327. 


INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.      273 

having  once  given  birth  to  offspring  having  a  strong- 
ly-marked character,  becomes  in  a  degree  moulded  to 
that  character,  and  tends  again  to  produce  it. 

"  At  all  events  the  teaching  of  this  fact  is  plain, 
and  we  would  never,  on  any  account,  allow  any  valued 
hens  to  mate  with  another  breed.  We  have  known 
ourselves  several  cases  in  which  hens  once  crossed  have 
reproduced  strong  cases  of  that  cross  two  years  after- 
ward ;  and  many  otherwise  unaccountable  occurrences, 
which  have  given  rise  to  bitter  recriminations,  may  be 
thus  very  easily  explained." x 

The  intensity  of  the  influence  of  the  male  element 
of  fertilization  upon  the  ova  seems  to  vary  widely  in 
different  species  of  animals.  In  many  species  a  single 
act  of  copulation  is  sufficient  to  impregnate  a  number 
of  eggs,  while  in  others  a  repetition  of  the  act  is  ap- 
parently required  to  produce  fecundation. 

Mr.  Wright  has  collected  a  number  of  instances 
showing  that  the  eggs  of  the  hen  are  fertile  from  four 
to  sixteen  days  after  separation  from  the  cock ;  *  and 
it  is  a  fact  well  known  to  breeders  that,  with  turkeys, 
a  single  copulation  is  sufficient  to  impregnate  all  the 
eggs  of  one  "  laying,"  *  while  it  is  stated  by  Mr.  Chapin, 
of  Milf ord,  Massachusetts,  "  that  a  hen-turkey  would 
lay  two  or  three  successive  litters  of  eggs,  having  been 
impregnated  only  for  the  first  litter."  * 


1  Loc.  tit.,  p.  130. 
*  Ibid.,  pp.  129,  130. 

3  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xii.,  p.  198 ;  Teget- 
meier's  "  Poultry-Book,"  p.  273 ;  "  The  Illustrated  Book  of  Poultry," 
by  Wright,  pp.  130,  519. 

4  "Agricultural  Report  of  Massachusetts,"  1863,  p.  57. 


274  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Agassiz  has  shown  that  turtles  begin  to  copulate 
at  the  age  of  seven  years,  but  do  not  lay  until  they 
are  eleven  years  old.  They  copulate  twice  each  year 
for  four  years,  before  the  eggs  are  fully  matured. 
"Upon  opening  large  numbers  of  young  Chrysemys 
picta,1  it  was  ascertained  that,  up  to  their  seventh  year, 
the  ovary  contained  only  eggs  of  very  small  size,  not 
distinguishable  into  sets ;  but  that  with  every  succeed- 
ing year  there  appears  in  that  organ  a  larger  and  larger 
set  of  eggs,  each  set  made  up  of  the  usual  average 
number  of  eggs  which  this  species  lays,  so  that  speci- 
mens eleven  years  old  for  the  first  time  contain  ma- 
ture eggs,  ready  to  be  laid  in  the  spring." 

From  observations  made  by  Agassiz,  "  it  appears 
that  the  first  copulation  coincides  with  a  new  develop- 
ment of  the  eggs,  in  consequence  of  which  a  certain 
number  of  them,  equal  to  that  which  the  species  lays, 
acquire  a  larger  size,  and  go  on  growing  for  four  suc- 
cessive years  before  they  are  laid,  while  a  new  set  is 
started  every  year,  at  the  period  of  copulation  in  the 
spring,  enabling  this  species  to  lay  annually  from  five 
to  seven  eggs  after  it  has  reached  its  eleventh  year." a 

After  a  careful  examination  of  all  the  known  facts 
bearing  upon  this  interesting  subject,  Agassiz  became 
satisfied  that  "  the  first  copulation  only  determines  the 
further  growth  of  a  certain  number  of  eggs,  which  re- 
quire a  series  of  successive  fecundations  to  undergo 
their  final  development ; "  and  that  "  in  turtles  a  repe- 
tition of  the  act,  twice  every  year  for  four  successive 
years,  is  necessary  to  determine  the  final  development 

1  A  common  fresh-water  turtle. 

8  "  Embryology  of  the  Turtle,"  by  Agassiz,  pp.  490,  491. 


INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.      275 

of  a  new  individual,  which  may  be  accomplished  in 
other  animals  by  a  single  copulation."  * 

The  repeated  fertilization  of  the  eggs  of  turtles  is 
apparently  analogous  to  the  phenomena  observed  in 
the  transmitted  influence  of  a  previous  impregnation 
to  the  offspring  by  a  subsequent  impregnation,  as 
pointed  out  by  Agassiz  in  a  lecture  before  the  Massa- 
chusetts Board  of  Agriculture  in  1860 ;  and  he  remarks 
that  his  experiments  with  dogs,  that  have  already  been 
mentioned,  seem  to  show  that  "  the  impregnation  of 
an  ovum  may  take  place  a  long  time  previous  to  its 
development,  and  that  it  probably  only  requires  the 
stimulus  of  future  connections  with  a  male  to  bring  it 
into  existence." a 

In  a  subsequent  lecture,  in  speaking  of  the  influ- 
ence of  a  previous  impregnation  upon  offspring  at  a 
later  period,  Agassiz  says :  "  It  therefore  shows  what 
I  have  satisfied  myself  to  be  the  truth  among  other 
animals,  by  numerous  experiments;  that  the  act  of 
fecundation  is  not  an  act  which  is  limited  in  its  effect, 
but  that  it  is  an  act  which  affects  the  whole  system, 
the  sexual  system  especially,  and  in  the  sexual  system 
the  ovary  to  be  impregnated  hereafter  is  so  modified 
by  the  first  act  that  later  impregnations  do  not  efface 
that  first  impression." 3 

This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  rational  explanation 
of  the  cases  under  consideration  that  has  been  pre- 
sented, and  there  are  additional  facts  which  show  that 
the  male  element  of  fertilization  may  extend  its  influ- 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  491. 

9  "Agricultural  Report  of  Massachusetts,"  1863,  pp.  66,  57. 

'Ibid.,  1856-V7,  p.  84. 


276  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

ence  to  the  ovary  itself,  as  well  as  to  the  germs  that 
are  not  fully  developed. 

During  the  period  of  heat  in  the  lower  animals, 
and  of  menstruation  in  women,  one  or  more  germs  are 
matured  and  escape  from  the  ovary,  so  that  the  term 
periodical  ovulation  has  been  used  to  designate  the 
process. 

"When  a  germ  is  thus  liberated  the  walls  of  the 
follicle  that  contained  it  become  thickened,  and  a  pe- 
culiar cicatrix  is  formed,  which  is  called  the  corpus 
luteum.  If  impregnation  of  the  germ  has  not  taken 
place,  the  corpus  luteum  attains  its  maximum  of  de- 
velopment at  the  end  of  three  weeks  (measuring  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  length  and  one-half  inch  wide), 
and  then  gradually  diminishes  in  size,  so  that  a  minute 
cicatrix  remains  at  the  end  of  seven  or  eight  weeks, 
and  in  the  course  of  seven  or  eight  months  it  entirely 
disappears. 

"When  the  germ  is  impregnated  the  corpus  luteum 
attains  a  greater  development,  continuing  its  growth 
to  the  end  of  the  fourth  month,  when  it  measures 
seven-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  in  depth. 

During  the  fifth  and  sixth  months  it  remains  un- 
changed, but  diminishes  again  during  the  seventh, 
eighth,  and  ninth  months,  when  it  measures  half  an 
inch  in  length  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  depth. 
Several  months  after  delivery  the  corpus  luteum  en- 
tirely disappears.1 

The  mere  fact  of  impregnation  seems  to  determine 

1  Dalton's  "  Human  Physiology,"  pp.  664-573 ;  Flint's  "  Physiology 
of  Man,"  vol.  v.  ("  Generation"),  pp.  307-312. 


INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.      277 

the  greater  or  less  development  and  duration  of  the 
corpus  luteum^  and,  although  it  has  been  supposed  that 
this  difference  is  owing  to  the  greater  vascular  activity 
of  the  generative  organs  of  the  female  during  preg- 
nancy, it  appears  probable,  from  the  facts  that  have 
been  presented,  that  the  corpus  luteum  of  pregnancy 
derives  its  distinctive  peculiarities  from  the  direct  in- 
fluence of  the  male  element  upon  the  ovary. 

Mr.  Darwin  cites  a  number  of  instances  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom  to  show  the  "  direct  action  of  the 
male  element  on  the  mother-form,"  and  he  comes  to 
the  conclusion  that "  the  male  element  not  only  affects, 
in  accordance  with  its  proper  function,  the  germ,  but 
the  surrounding  tissues  of  the  mother-plant." ' 

After  citing  some  of  the  cases  that  have  already 
been  presented  of  the  influence  upon  offspring  of  a 
previous  impregnation  of  the  mother,  Mr.  Darwin 
says,  "  The  analogy  from  the  direct  action  of  foreign 
pollen  on  the  ovarium  and  seed-coats  of  the  mother- 
plant  strongly  supports  the  belief  that  the  male  ele- 
ment acts  directly  on  the  reproductive  organs  of  the 
female,  wonderful  as  is  this  action,  and  not  through 
the  intervention  of  the  crossed  embryo." a 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  explanation  of  the 
continued  influence  of  the  male  upon  offspring  by 
another  male  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  given  by 
Agassiz,  and  it  is  believed  that  there  is  a  strong  pre- 
ponderance of  evidence  in  its  favor. 

In  the  first  observed  cases,  it  was  claimed  that  this 
peculiar  influence  of  the  male  was  limited  to  the  first 

1  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p.  483. 
*  Ibid.,  p.  486. 


278  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

impregnation  of  the  female  only,  but  there  is  good 
reason  to  believe  that  every  impregnation  may  leave 
its  impress  upon  partly-developed  germs,  and  be  thus 
transmitted  with  the  characters  of  a  subsequent  fecun- 
dation. 

The  intensity  of  the  influence  of  the  male  may  be 
impaired  by  an  excessive  use  of  the  procreative  organs, 
and  it  has  been  observed  in  fowls  that  when  the  male 
is  "  over-mated  "  the  eggs  are  sometimes  imperfectly 
impregnated. 

Mr.  "Wright  remarks  that  "  it  is  a  notorious  fact 
that  when  a  cock  is  over-mated  the  eggs  always  hatch 
in  a  very  unsatisfactory  manner ; "  and  he  adds :  "  But 
besides  mere  fertility  there  are  other  considerations ; 
and,  in  the  first  place,  it  appears  indisputable  that 
eggs  may  be  so  far  fertilized  as  to  commence  hatching, 
and  yet  not  have  sufficient  vigor  to  complete  the  pro- 
cess successfully.  The  number  of  cases  where  such 
experiments  have  been  made  as  we  have  quoted,  in 
which  part  of  the  eggs  produced  showed  signs  of 
hatching  but  did  not  hatch,  is  proportionately  very 
great,  and  the  conclusion  will  not  be  lost  on  the  intel- 
ligent breeder. 

"  But  still  further,  and  coming  back  to  the  consid- 
erations with  which  we  commenced  this  part  of  the 
subject,  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  resist  the  conclusion 
that,  beyond  fertilization,  the  act  of  union  exerts,  in 
many  cases,  a  more  mysterious  and  far-reaching  influ- 
ence." l 

The  same  writer  is  inclined  to  the  belief  that,  when 
a  hen-turkey  is  mated  but  once  for  an  entire  laying  of 

1  "The  Illustrated  Poultry-Book,"  pp.  130,  131. 


INFLUENCE  OF  A  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.      279 

eggs,  the  young  birds  are  not  so  strong  and  vigorous 
as  when  the  male  runs  permanently  with  a  dozen  or 
fifteen  hens.1 

It  seems  to  be  quite  generally  acknowledged  by 
poultry-breeders  that,  to  produce  strong,  vigorous  off- 
spring, the  cocks  should  not  be  allowed  to  mate  with 
more  than  from  four  to  six  hens,  if  in  confinement,  or 
with  twice  that  number,  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances,  when  running  at  large.3 

The  effects  of  an  impaired  influence  of  the  male, 
in  the  process  of  procreation,  upon  his  offspring,  need 
to  be  more  fully  investigated;  but  there  are  many 
facts  that  indicate  that  this  is  in  all  probability  a  potent 
cause  of  degeneracy.3 

Closely  connected  with  the  facts  under  discussion 
are  the  observations  that  have  been  made  on  the  lower 
animals,  showing  that  at  least  several  spermatozoons 
(the  active  male  elements  of  fertilization)  are  neces- 
sary to  produce  a  complete  impregnation  of  the 
germ;  but  it  is  perhaps  impossible,  from  the  differ- 
ent conditions  presented,  to  determine  experimentally 


1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  519. 

8  "  The  Illustrated  Poultry-Book,"  by  Wright,  pp.  44,  306  ;  Journal 
of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xii.,  p.  180;  "Domestic  Fowl," 
by  Richardson,  p.  60  ;  Geyelin'a  "  Poultry-Breeding,"  p.  24  ;  Mowbray 
on  "  Poultry,"  p.  33. 

3  Nordhoff  describes  the  Mormon  children  as  "  undersized,  loosely 
built,  flabby.  .  .  .  The  young  girls  were  pale,  and  had  unwholesome, 
waxy  complexions ;  the  young  men  were  small  and  thin,  and  looked 
weak ; "  but  this  he  attributes  to  "  the  hard  struggle  with  life  while 
these  youth  were  babes  "  (Nordhoff's  "  California,"  pp.  42,  43). 

(The  facts  cited  above,  however,  seem  to  indicate  that  these  peculi- 
arities may,  with  greater  reason,  be  attributed  to  polygamy.) 


280  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

the  same  class  of  facts  in  animals  more  highly  organ- 
ized.1 

"  It  appears,  from  Mr.  Newport's  ingenious  experi- 
ments, that  the  contact  of  a  single  spermatozoon  is 
not  adequate  to  produce  complete  fecundation,  but 
that  the  penetration  of  a  certain  number  of  sperma- 
tozoa is  requisite ;  and  he  has  ascertained  that  fecun- 
dation may  be  effected  partially  (so  as  to  occasion 
some,  though  not  all,  of  the  normal  changes  in  the 
ovum)  by  a  smaller  amount." a 

The  last-mentioned  fact,  it  will  be  noticed,  is  in 
accordance  with  the  experience  of  breeders  of  fowls, 
to  which  reference  has  already  been  made. 

1  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  464 ;  Flint's 
"  Physiology  of  Man,"  vol.  v.,  p.  353. 

*  Carpenter's  "  Comparative  Physiology,"  p.  532. 


CHAPTEE  XIII. 

INTKA-TJTEKINE   INFLUENCES. 

THE  abnormal  peculiarities  occasionally  observed 
in  animals  at  the  time  of  birth,  that  are  not  recog- 
nized as  family  characteristics,  have  been  popularly 
attributed  to  some  mysterious  influence  of  the  imagi- 
nation of  the  mother  in  the  process  of  intra-uterine 
development. 

This  influence  is  supposed  by  many  to  be  exerted 
not  only  in  mammals,  where  the  most  intimate  rela- 
tions are  known  to  exist  .between  the  mother  and  the 
embryo  during  the  period  of  utero-gestation,  but  also 
in  fowls,  where  the  egg  is  separated  from  the  mother 
before  the  slightest  indications  of  embryological  de- 
velopment can  be  detected.1 

The  following  cases,  which  have  been  reported  as 
illustrations  of  this  influence,  will  be  sufficient  to  show 
the  kind  of  evidence  on  which  it  rests,  and  the  varied 
results  it  is  claimed  to  produce  : 

1  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  475 ;  Wright's 
"  Book  of  Poultry,"  pp.  131,  314. 

It  has  even  been  assumed  that  birds,  in  the  process  of  incubation, 
exert  an  influence  upon  the  eggs  they  are  hatching  that  is  sufficient  to 
modify  the  characters  of  the  progeny.  In  artificial  incubation,  however, 
and  when  the  eggs  of  one  species  are  hatched  by  another,  the  inherited 
characters  are  not  modified. 
13 


282  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

"  It  is  stated  that  the  ambition,  courage,  and  mili- 
tary skill  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  had  their  foundation 
in  the  circumstance  that  the  emperor's  mother  fol- 
lowed her  husband  in  his  campaigns,  and  was  sub- 
jected to  all  the  dangers  of  a  military  life ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  murder  of  David  Rizzio  in  the 
presence  of  Queen  Mary  was  the  death-blow  to  the 
personal  courage  of  King  James  I.,  and  occasioned 
that  strong  dislike  of  edged  weapons  for  which  that 
crafty  and  pedantic  monarch  was  said  to  be  remark- 
able."1 

At  the  siege  of  Landau,  in  1793,  "  in  addition  to 
a  violent  cannonading,  which  kept  the  women  for 
some  time  in  a  constant  state  of  alarm,  the  arsenal 
blew  up  with  a  terrific  explosion,  which  few  could 
hear  with  unshaken  nerves.  Out  of  ninety-two  chil- 
dren born  in  that  district  within  a  few  months  after- 
ward, Baron  Percy  states  that  sixteen  died  at  the  in- 
stant of  birth ;  thirty-three  languished  for  from  eight 
to  ten  months  and  then  died ;  eight  became  idiotic, 
and  died  before  the  age  of  five  years ;  and  two  came 
into  the  world  with  numerous  fractures  of  the  bones 
and  limbs,  caused  by  the  cannonading  and  explosion. 
Here,  then,  is  a  total  of  fifty-nine  children  out  of 
ninety-two,  or  within  a  trifle  of  two  out  of  every 
three,  actually  killed  through  the  medium  of  the 
mother's  alarm,  and  the  natural  consequences  upon 
her  own  organization." a 

Mr.  Boswell  relates  the  following,  on  the  authority 
of  "  Mr.  Mustard,  an  extensive  farmer  on  Sir  James 

1  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  474. 
9  Carpenter's  "Human  Physiology,"  p.  1011. 


INTRA-UTERINE  INFLUENCES.  283 

Carnegie's  estate  in  Angus,"  Scotland :  "  One  of  his 
cows  chanced  to  come  into  season  while  pasturing 
on  a  field  which  was  bounded  by  that  of  one  of  his 
neighbors,  out  of  which  field  an  ox  jumped  and 
went  with  the  cow  until  she  was  brought  home  to 
the  bull. 

"  The  ox  was  white,  with  black  spots,  and  horned. 
Mr.  Mustard  had  not  a  horned  beast  in  his  possession, 
nor  one  with  any  white  on  it.  Nevertheless,  the 
produce  of  the  following  spring  was  a  black-and-white 
calf,  with  horns."  * 

"  It  is  related  that,  at  the  time  when  a  stallion  was 
about  to  cover  a  mare,  the  stallion's  pale  color  was  ob- 
jected to,  whereupon  the  groom,  knowing  in  the  effect 
of  color  upon  horses'  imaginations,  presented  before 
the  stallion  a  mare  of  a  pleasing  color,  which  had  the 
desired  effect  of  determining  a  dark  color  in  the  off- 
spring. This  is  said  to  have  been  repeated  with  suc- 
cess in  the  same  horse  more  than  once." a 

"  Prof.  Dalton,  whose  accuracy  upon  such  a  point 
cannot  be  questioned,  noted  the  following :  While  he 
was  lecturing  upon  the  subject  of  generation,  at  the 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  New  York, 
the  janitor  of  the  college  called  his  attention  to  his 
child,  which  presented  a  deformity  of  the  external 
ear,  as  though  a  portion  had  been  taken  off  with  a 
sharp  instrument.  The  janitor  stated  that  his  wife, 
during  her  pregnancy,  dreamed  that  she  saw  a  man 
with  a  similar  deformity.  This  dream  was  very  vivid, 
and- she  immediately  related  it  to  her  husband.  They 

1  "  Transactions  of  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society,"  vol.  i.,  p.  28. 
a  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  474. 


284:  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

both  believed  that  this  was  the  cause  of  the  def ormity 
of  the  child."1 

A  gentleman  of  my  acquaintance  states  that  he 
saw  a  lamb  that  resembled  a  rabbit  in  the  form  of  its 
feet ;  the  dam  had  been  kept  in  a  pasture  where  rab- 
bits were  numerous. 

"A  woman  whose  children  had  previously  been 
healthy,  six  weeks  before  conception  is  suddenly 
frighted  by  a  beggar  who  presents  a  stumped  arm 
and  a  wooden  leg,  and  threatened  to  embrace  her ;  the 
next  child  had  only  one  stump  leg  and  two  stump  arms." 

"  A  young  woman,  frighted  in  her  first  pregnancy 
by  the  sight  of  a  child  with  hare-lip,  bears  a  child 
with  a  complete  deformity  of  the  same  kind ;  her 
second  child  had  merely  a  deep  slit,  and  her  third  no 
more  than  a  mark  in  the  same  place." 

"  A  child  is  born  with  a  hare-lip,  which  was  caused 
by  the  mother's  frequently  seeing  a  child  with  the 
same  deformity  during  her  pregnancy." 

"  A  lady  in  London,  who  is  frightened  by  a  beggar 
presenting  the  stump  of  an  arm  to  her,  bears  a  child 
wanting  a  hand." 

"A  child  is  born  covered  with  hairs,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  mother  having  been  in  the  habit  of 
beholding  a  picture  of  St.  John  the  Baptist." 

"A  woman  gives  birth  to  a  child  covered  with 
hair  and  having  the  claws  of  a  bear,  from  her  con- 
stantly beholding  the  images  and  pictures  of  bears 
hung  up  everywhere  in  the  dwelling  of  the  Ursini 
family,  to  which  she  belonged." a 

1  Flint's  "  Physiology  of  Man,"  vol.  v.,  p.  351. 

a  The  last  six  cases  are  quoted  from  Dr.  Allen  Thomson,  who 


INTRA-UTERINE  INFLUENCES.  285 

The  most  remarkable  case  of  supposed  influence 
of  the  imagination  that  has  come  to  my  knowledge 
was  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  John  B.  Poyntz,  a 
breeder  of  Jersey  cattle,  Maysville,  Kentucky,  in  a 
letter  dated  December  18,  18T2.  At  my  request  he 
made  a  more  particular  statement  of  the  attending 
circumstances,  substantiated  by  affidavits,  which  was 
published  in  The  Bulletin,  Maysville,  Kentucky,  Feb- 
ruary 18,  1875. 

The  published  statement  of  Mr.  Poyntz  was  as 
follows  :  "  Alderney  Farm,  near  Maysville,  Kentucky, 
January  18,  1875.  In  the  year  1863  the  theory  of 
Prof.  Thury,  of  Geneva,  Switzerland — the  production 
of  sex  at  will — was  undergoing  investigation  on  my 
farm.  For  that  purpose  I  selected  a  lot  of  Alderney 
heifers  and  a  bull;  none  of  them  were  marked  or 
branded,  nor  were  their  ancestors  subsequent  to  1850. 
In  the  month  of  July  the  cattle  were  placed  on  a 
woodland  pasture,  well  provided  with  water  and  blue 
grass,  and  in  the  pasture  were  placed  a  number  of 
government  horses,  where  they  remained  several 
weeks.  Each  and  every  horse  was  branded  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  left  shoulder  with  the  letters  U.  S. 
In  the  spring  and  summer  of  1864  the  heifers  had 
calves.  One  of  the  number  produced  a  fawn-colored 

copies  over  forty  similar  cases  from  Burdach  and  Dr.  Blundell  ("  Cyclo- 
paedia of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  article  "  Generation,"  vol.  ii.,  p. 
475). 

In  connection  with  the  last  case,  Dr.  Thomson  remarks  that  "  it  is 
not  stated  by  the  author  of  *  Waverley '  whether  anything  of  the  kind 
ever  happened  in  the  Bradwardine  family ; "  and  he  might  with  equal 
propriety  have  raised  the  question  as  to  the  frequency  of  such  malfor- 
mations among  the  inhabitants  of  Berne. 


286  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

or  reddish  calf,  and  on  the  lower  part  of  the  shoulder 
were  the  letters  U.  S.,  formed  of  white  hairs,  plainly 
to  be  seen  by  casual  observers ;  was  shown  by  me  to 
friends  and  visitors ;  and  in  due  time  my  U.  S.  heifer 
had  a  calf  which  was  marked  with  U.  S.  in  the  same 
place  as  her  dam ;  the  letter  S.  was  not  so  perfectly 
formed  as  on  the  dam,  but  was  too  plain  to  be  taken 
for  anything  other  than  the  letter  S.  In  the  growth 
of  these  cattle  or  cows  the  letters  moved  higher  upon 
the  shoulder  and  appeared  to  elongate,  and,  in  five  or 
six  years,  the  character  or  form  of  the  letters  was  lost 
and  appeared  only  as  numerous  small  white  specks  or 
spots.  This  is  the  statement  in  full,  which  I  propose 
to  substantiate  by  the  statement  of  others  sworn  to 
before  the  proper  authorities  of  this  county. 

"JOHNB.  POYNTZ." 

"  This  day  appeared  John  B.  Poyntz,  who  is  well 
known  to  me,  signed  the  above  statements,  and  made 
oath  that  they  were  true. 

[SEAL.]         "  C.  B.  PIEECE,  Notary  Public."  ' 

1  Accompanying  this  statement  were  the  following  affidavits : 

"STATE  OF  KENTUCKY,  1 
MASON  COUNTY,        }  Sct- 

"  F.  H.  Bierbower,  a  resident  of  Maysville,  in  the  State  above  writ- 
ten, being  first  duly  sworn,  states  that  in  the  summer  of  1863,  while  he 
was  Captain  of  Company  A,  of  Fortieth  Kentucky  Mounted  Infantry, 
he  pastured  some  twenty  or  thirty  head  of  horses  on  the  farm  of  John 
B.  Poyntz,  near  the  city  of  Maysville ;  the  said  horses  were  the  prop- 
erty of  the  United  States,  and  were  distinctly  branded  on  the  left  fore- 
shoulder  with  the  letters  U.  S. ;  the  affiant  further  states  that  cattle 
were  confined  at  the  same  time  with  said  horses  in  the  same  pasture. 

"  F.  H.  BIERBOWER." 


INTRA-UTERINE  INFLUENCES.  287 

This  case  might  be  cited  to  show  the  literary  abil- 
ity and  patriotism  of  the  Alderneys,  as  well  as  their 
powers  of  observation  and  active  imagination. 

The  longing  of  the  mother  for  strawberries,  grapes, 
cherries,  etc.,  has  been  supposed  to  produce  marks  on 
the  offspring  that  present  a  fancied  resemblance  to 
the  object  of  desire. 

The  cases  in  which  the  habitual  condition  of  the 
mother  is  repeated  in  her  offspring  do  not  differ  in 

"  This  day  appeared  F.  H.  Bierbower,  who  is  well  known  to  me, 
signed  the  above  statements,  and  made  oath  that  they  were  true. 
[SEAL.]  "  CHAS.  B.  PIERCE,  Notary  Public." 

"  MAYSVILLE,  KENTUCKY  January  21, 1875. 

"  I  hired  on  the  Alderney  farm  of  John  B.  Poyntz,  and  had  the  care 
of  his  herd  of  cattle,  and  remember  well  the  circumstance  of  the  Gov- 
ernment horses  being  pastured  with  the  cattle,  also  the  birth  of  the 
calf  marked  with  the  letters  U.  S.,  in  white  hairs  on  the  shoulder,  the 
calf  being  of  reddish  or  fawn  color,  and  that  when  she  had  a  calf  it 
was  marked  in  the  same  place  and  with  the  same  letters  as  the  dam — 
the  letter  S.  was  not  so  perfectly  formed,  but  could  not  be  mistaken 
for  any  other  letter.  SAMUEL  OLDHAM." 

"  This  day  appeared  Samuel  Oldham,  who  is  well  known  to  me, 
signed  the  above  statements,  and  made  oath  that  they  were  true. 
[SEAL.]  "  CHAS.  B.  PIERCE,  Notary  Public." 

"  MATSVILLE,  KENTUCKY,  January  21, 1875. 

"  I  purchased  a  farm  adjoining  that  of  John  B.  Poyntz,  upon  which 
I  have  lived  up  to  this  date,  have  often  seen  his  U.  S.  heifer,  as  she 
was  called,  and  noticed  the  letters  on  her  shoulder  in  white  hairs ;  also 
remember  of  her  having  a  calf  marked  in  the  same  manner  on  the 
shoulder ;  they  were  shown  by  Poyntz  to  his  friends  and  visitors  as 
curiosities.  JOHN  H.  WILSON." 

"  This  day  appeared  John  H.  Wilson,  who  is  well  known  to  me, 
signed  the  above  statements,  and  made  oath  that  they  were  true. 
[SEAL.]  "  CHAS.  B.  PIERCE,  Notary  Public." 


288  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

any  essential  particular  from  the  instances  of  heredi- 
tary transmission  of  acquired  habits,  that  have  been 
noticed  in  another  chapter. 

A  habit  of  the  mind  of  either  parent  may  be  trans- 
mitted to  their  progeny  in  accordance  with  the  same 
laws  that  determine  the  transmission  of  any  other 
character  or  quality,  and  it  seems  to  be  entirely  un- 
necessary to  assume  that  the  imagination  of  the  mother 
is  an  active  agent  in  determining  the  result. 

Malformations  of  the  foetus  have  not  been  attrib- 
uted by  physiologists  to  the  direct  influence  of  the 
imagination  of  the  mother,  for  the  following  rea- 
sons: 

"  1.  Malformations  seldom,  or  perhaps  never,  agree 
with  the  apprehensions  er  fears,  a  priori,  of  pregnant 
women.  On  the  contrary,  it  often  happens  that  a 
woman  who  has  once  procreated  a  malformation  and 
is  continually  troubled  by  the  fear  of  another  similar 
occurrence,  may  become  the  happy  mother  of  a  second 
well-formed  child." 

"  2.  Malformations  occur  likewise  among  the  infe- 
rior animals — insects,  testaceous  animals,  echinoder- 
mata — in  which  the  development  of  psychical  life  is 
very  imperfect,  and  the  oviparous  generation  of  which 
must  preserve  the  young  from  the  influence  of  disor- 
dered maternal  imagination." 

"In  the  case  of  twins,  as  the  acephali  specially 
show,  one  child  may  be  malformed  and  the  other  in 
perfect  condition,  notwithstanding  they  were  both 
exposed  to  the  same  influence. 

"  That  more  deeply-situated  organs,  the  very  ex- 
istence of  which  may  be  unknown  to  the  pregnant 


INTRA-UTERINE  INFLUENCES.  289 

woman,  may  be  malformed,  as  for  instance  the  heart, 
the  intestinal  tube,  etc." ' 

In  most  cases  of  malformation  the  mental  impres- 
sion that  is  assigned  as  a  cause  is  not  presumed  to 
have  been  injurious  until  the  malformation  is  ob- 
served, while  the  violent  shocks  that  give  rise  to 
apprehensions  of  injury  are  usually  found  to  have 
made  no  impression  upon  the  development  of  the 
foetus. 

The  anatomical  relations  of  the  embryo  and  its 
uterine  envelopes  likewise  render  it  improbable  that 
any  mental  impressions  of  the  mother  can  be  trans- 
mitted to  any  particular  part  of  the  foetus,  to  exert  a 
specific  influence  in  its  development. 

There  are  many  considerations  that  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  malformations  of  the  embryo  are  determined 
by  fixed  organic  laws  that  preclude  the  intervention 
of  paroxysmal  causes. 

""We  never  see  in  malformed  births  dissimilar 
parts  fused  or  united  with  each  other,  such  as  the 
intestinal  tube  with  the  aorta,  the  arteries  with  the 
nerves,  etc.  Each  part,  therefore,  retains  to  a  certain 
degree  its  own  independence.  ...  The  gullet  some- 
times coalesces  with  the  larynx,  and  the  bladder  with 
the  rectum  ;  but  these  parts  are  not  originally  dissimi- 
lar, being  developed  from  a  common  mass. 

"  The  malformed  parts  are  restricted  to  their  de- 
terminate place,  according  to  what  Fleischmann  de- 
nominates lex  topicorum, 

"  No  malformed  organ  loses  entirely  its  own  char- 

1  W.  Vrolik,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  article 
"  Teratology,"  vol.  iv.,  p.  943. 


290  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

acter,  and  no  malformed  animal  loses  its  generic  dis- 
tinction. It  is  therefore  justly  observed  by  Som- 
mering  that  Nature  does  not  deviate  ad  injwitum, 
and  that  even  in  monstrosities  a  distinct  gradation 
and  natural  order  are  observable. 

"  This  order  appears  even — 1.  In  the  number  in 
which  they  occur  within  a  certain  space  of  time.  *  In 
three  thousand  births  in  Paris  there  occurs  about  one 
monster. 

"  2.  In  the  sex.  In  impeded  development  the 
malformed  children  are  more  frequently  female,  in 
some  sorts  of  double  monsters,  male. 

"3.  In  a  definite  proportion  between  the  species 
of  animals,  and  the  most  frequent  'monstrosities  in 
them.  Cyclops,1  for  instance,  especially  with  a  snout, 
occur  most  frequently  in  swine ;  double  monsters  in 
man. 

"  4.  In  the  constant  form  of  monsters,  even  among 
the  most  heterogeneous  animals.  Cyclopia,  double 
monsters,  acrania,2  have  in  birds  precisely  the  same 
characters  as  in  the  mammalia. 

"  5.  In  the  greater  predisposition  to  monstrosity 
among  some  animals.  This  is  greater  among  domes- 
tic than  among  wild  animals ;  greater  among  the  more 
perfect  than  among  the  less  perfect ;  three-fourths  of 
the  monstrosities  occur  among  the  mammalia,  one- 
fourth  among  birds.  They  happen  seldom  among 
reptilia,  still  less  frequently  among  fishes,  mollusca, 
articulata,  and  radiata." 

"From  these  premises  the  consequence  is  easily 

1  Monsters  with  one  eye. 

2  Headless  monsters. 


INTRA-UTERINE  INFLUENCES.  291 

derived  that  monstrosities  do  not  take  place  by  chance, 
and  therefore  do  not  by  any  means  deserve  the  so  very 
general  appellation  of  caprices  of  Nature  (lusus  no- 
turoB).  The  result  of  this  is,  that  they  often  present 
a  quantitative  antithesis,  according  to  what  Geoffroy 
St.-Hilaire  denominates  loi  de  fialancement.1  Accord- 
ing to  this  law  the  excessive  development  of  one  part 
of  the  body  is  often  connected  with  checked  forma- 
tion of  another.  To  anencephalia?  cydopia,  spina 
bifida?  are  often  joined  fingers  and  toes  in  excessive 
numbers ;  to  sireno-melia*  superfluous  vertebrae  and 
ribs ;  and  frequently  there  occur  in  double  monsters 
malformations  of  the  head.  Meckel  saw  in  one  in- 
stance this  antithesis  extend  itself  over  different  chil- 
dren of  one  and  the  same  mother.  A  girl  had  on 
each  extremity  a  superfluous  digit ;  one  hand  of  her 
sister  wanted  four  fingers,  being  the  number  of  digits 
which  her  sister  had  in  excess,  reckoning  the  four 
extremities  together."  6 

The  laws  of  embryological  development  furnish  a 
satisfactory  explanation  of  the  cases  in  which  there  is 
a  fancied  resemblance  of  the  foetus  to  some  of  the 
lower  animals. 

There  is  a  close  correspondence  between  the  em- 
bryos of  all  vertebrate  animals  in  the  earliest  stages  of 
development ;  "  and  it  is  only  with  the  advance  of  the 
developmental  process  that  indications  successively 

1  Another  name  for  law  of  correlation. 
8  Brainless  monsters. 

3  Fissure  of  the  spinal  column. 

4  Monsters  without  feet. 

6  W.  Vrolik,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  article 
"  Tetratology,"  vol.  iv.,  pp.  945,  946. 


292  PKINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

present  themselves,  which  enable  us  to  distinguish, 
one  after  another,  the  characters  of  the  order,  the 
family,  the  genus,  the  species,  the  variety,  the  sex, 
and  the  individual — the  more  special  features  progres- 
sively evolving  themselves  out  of  the  more  general, 
which  is  the  expression  of  the  law  of  development, 
common  to  all  organized  beings."  * 

If  the  process  of  development  is  arrested  in  the 
early  stages  of  embryonic  growth,  the  foetus,  from  the 
imperfection  of  its  organization,  may  in  many  respects 
resemble  some  of  the  inferior  animals. 

The  arrest  of  development  at  an  early  period  may 
prevent  the  formation  of  any  vestige  of  a  particular 
organ ;  or,  if  it  occurs  at  a  later  period,  the  organ  may 
be  rudimentary. 

Any  severe  shock  of  the  nervous  system  of  the 
mother,  whether  by  fright  or  otherwise,  may  impair 
the  process  of  nutrition,  and  thus  produce  an  arrest  of 
development  in  the  entire  embryo  or  some  of  its 
parts. 

The  rudimentary  or  imperfectly-developed  organ 
may,  however,  attain  nearly  its  natural  size,  as  its 
growth  may  continue  after  the  cessation  of  the  devel- 
opmental process. 

It  is  likewise  probable  that  the  habitual  mental 
condition  of  the  mother  may  have  an  influence  upon 
the  nutrition  of  the  embryo,  and  thus  interfere  with 
its  development.  It  is  well  known  that  "  a  fit  of 
passion  in  the  nurse  vitiates  the  quality  of  the  milk 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  cause  colic  and  indigestion  (or 

1  Carpenter's  "  Human  Physiology,"  p.  987 ;  "  Comparative  Physi- 
ology ,»  p.  124. 


INTRA-UTERINE  INFLUENCES.  293 

even  death)  in  the  sucking  infant ; "  *  and  it  is  not 
unreasonable  to  suppose  that  the  nutritive  fluids  may 
be  modified  by  a  similiar  influence  during  the  period 
of  gestation. 

Among  the  abnormal  conditions  produced  by  an 
arrest  of  development  are  hare-lip,  cleft-palate,  fissures 
of  the  body  or  of  the  spinal  column  (spina  Ufida\ 
absence  or  malformation  of  the  limbs,  deficient  num- 
ber of  the  digits,  etc. 

The  limbs  of  all  vertebrate  animals  are  formed  by 
"  a  kind  of  budding  process,  as  offshoots  of  the  exter- 
nal layer  of  the  blastodermic  membrane.  They  are 
at  first  mere  rounded  elevations,  without  any  separa- 
tion between  the  fingers  and  toes,  or  any  distinction 
between  the  different  articulations. 

"  Subsequently  the  free  extremity  of  each  limb 
becomes  divided  into  the  phalanges  of  the  fingers  or 
toes ;  and  afterward  the  articulations  of  the  wrist  and 
ankle,  knee  and  elbow,  shoulder  and  hip,  appear  suc- 
cessively from  below  upward."  a 

The  feet  of  frogs,  of  birds,  of  squirrels  and  rab- 
bits, of  cattle,  and  even  the  feet  and  hands  of  the 
human  foetus,  are  all,  in  an  early  stage  of  development, 
webbed  as  if  fitted  for  swimming,  and  the  characteris- 
tic form  of  the  digits  in  each  species  is  only  observed 
at  a  later  period  of  growth.* 

The  divergence  from  this  common  type,  observed 

1  Dr.  A.  Combe,  on  "  The  Management  of  Infants,"  p.  76,  quoted 
in  Carpenter's  "Human  Physiology,"  p.  1011. 

8  Dalton's  "  Human  Physiology,"  p.  630. 

3  Agassiz's  "  Lectures  on  Embryology,"  p.  102 ;  Carpenter's  "  Hu- 
man Physiology,"  p.  1007 ;  Colin,  "  Physiologic  Comparee,"  etc,,  tome 
ii.,  p.  570. 


294  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

in  the  process  of  development,  has  been  made  use  of 
in  the  classification  of  animals :  as  in  birds,  for  exam- 
ple, those  with  webbed  feet  are  placed  lower  in  the 
scale  of  organization,  the  developmental  process  not 
having  proceeded  so  far  as  in  those  with  separate  toes. 

In  the  higher  animals,  digits  that  adhere  or  are 
connected  by  a  membrane  represent  the  embryonic 
type  that  has  been  retained  through  defective  devel- 
opment. The  lamb  mentioned  above,  that  presented 
a  fancied  resemblance  to  a  rabbit  in  the  form  of  its 
feet,  was  undoubtedly  an  instance  of  arrested  de- 
velopment. 

"  The  foetus  in  utero,  even  at  early  periods  of  its 
development,  is  liable  to  a  large  number  of  organic 
alterations,  and  even  to  lose  its  life,  in  consequence  of 
inflammation  attacking  the  uterus  of  the  mother,  the 
foetal  appendages,  or  its  own  system.  From  such 
causes  arise  a  variety  of  pathological  changes  in  the 
foetus,  as  atrophy,  arrest  of  development,  amputation 
of  limbs,  and  many  other  affections."  1 

The  particular  part  of  the  foetus  affected  by  disease 
is  undoubtedly  determined  by  the  same  general  con- 
ditions that  determine  the  seat  of  disease  after  birth, 
among  which  may  be  enumerated  irregularities  of  the 
circulation,  producing  local  congestions  or  inflamma- 
tion, hereditary  predisposition  to  disease  of  particular 
organs,  mechanical  injuries,  and  specific  diseases  com- 
municated by  the  mother,  as  small-pox,  scarlet  fever, 
measles,  etc.2 

1  Montgomery,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  article 
"  Foetus,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  330. 
9  Ibid.,  p.  333. 


INTRA-UTERINE  INFLUENCES.  295 

"  According  to  Hausmann,  the  effect  of  variations 
of  the  external  atmosphere  is  visible  in  the  unusual 
number  of  blind  colts  and  hydrocephalic  pigs  which 
are  born  after  a  wet  summer."  * 

Atrophy,  and  even  amputation  of  the  limbs  of  the 
foetus,  has  in  many  instances  been  produced  by  the 
mechanical  pressure  of  ligamentous  bands,  or  loops  of 
the  umbilical  cord.3 

From  the  facts  already  presented,  it  must  be  seen 
that  malformations  of  the  embryo  are  produced  by 
well-known  physiological  and  pathological  conditions, 
that  interfere  with  the  normal  process  of  develop- 
ment. 

From  what  is  now  known  of  the  laws  of  embryo- 
logical  development  and  the  causes  of  abnormal  varia- 
tions, the  theory  that  the  imagination  of  the  mother 
has  a  direct  influence  in  producing  malformations,  or 
impressing  peculiar  marks  upon  the  embryo,  appears 
to  be  based  on  insufficient  evidence. 

1  Allen  Thomson,  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  article 
"  Generation,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  475. 

8  Montgomery,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  327-330. 


CHAPTEB  XIY. 

SEX. 

THE  causes  that  determine  sex  have  been  a  subject 
of  speculation  from  the  earliest  times.  The  theories 
that  were  first  framed,  in  accordance  with  some  fan- 
cied analogy,  as  an  expression  of  the  laws  of  the  or- 
ganization, have  been  repeatedly  revived  in  their  orig- 
inal form,  without  adding  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
conditions  that  determine  the  result. 

From  the  fact  that  there  are  two  testicles  and  two 
ovaries  in  the  higher  animals,  symmetrically  placed, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  median  line  of  the  body,  it 
was  supposed  that  the  right  ovary  and  testicle  were 
concerned  in  the  production  of  males,  and  the  left  in 
the  production  of  females. 

Physiologists  have  long  known  that  this  theory 
had  no  foundation  in  fact,  as  males  with  one  testicle 
and  females  with  one  ovary  produce  offspring  of 
both  sexes.  The  following  case,  reported  by  Prof. 
Marzolo,  of  Padua,  is  of  particular  interest:  "In  a 
patient,  thirty-five  years  of  age,  the  left  ovary  was 
removed  for  cystic  tumor.  The  woman  recovered 
from  the  operation,  and  became  pregnant  about  a 
year  after.  She  was  delivered  at  full  term  of  twins, 


SEX.  297 

a  male  and  a  female,  and  both  of  the  children  did 
well." l 

In  a  case  reported  by  Dr.  Granville,  of  London, 
to  the  Koyal  Society,3  the  left  Fallopian  tube  and  ovary 
of  a  woman  forty  years  old  were  entirely  wanting ; 
yet  she  had  been  the  mother  of  eleven  children  of 
both  sexes ;  and,  "  a  few  days  before  her  death,  had 
been  delivered  of  twins — one  male  and  one  female."  ' 

"  M.  Jadelot,  too,  has  given  the  dissection  of  a  fe- 
male who  had  been  delivered  of  several  children — 
boys  and  girls ;  and  yet  she  had  no  ovary  or  Fallopian 
tube  on  the  right  side.  Lepelletier  asserts  that  he  saw 
a  similar  case  in  the  hospital  at  Mans,  in  1825,  and 
the  Recueils  of  the  Societe  de  Medecine  of  Paris  con- 
tains the  history  of  an  extra-uterine  gestation,  in  which 
a  male  foetus  was  contained  in  the  left  ovary."  ' 

Mr.  J.  Buckingham,  of  Zanesville,  Ohio,  gives  the 
following  report  of  an  experiment  made  by  himself 
to  test  the  truth  of  this  theory :  "  Taking  a  boar,"  he 
says,  "  I  took  out  his  left  testicle,  and  turned  him  into 
a  lot  with  three  sows,  one  of  which  had  her  left  ova- 
ries (ovary)  out,  the  other  the  right  ones  (one)  out, 
and  one  not  spayed.  The  next  lot  had  a  boar  with 
his  right  testicle  out,  and  three  sows  fixed  as  the 
others  had  been.  The  next  lot  had  a  boar  and  three 
sows  fixed  as  the  first  three  had  been.  Now  for  the 
result :  Every  sow  had  from  seven  to  nine  pigs. 

1  Flint's  "  Physiology  of  Man,"  vol.  v.,  p.  346 ;  from  Gazette  Medi- 
cale  de  Paris,  18Y3,  No.  44,  p.  582. 

9  "  Philosophical  Transactions,"  1808,  p.  308. 

3  Dunglison's  "  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  400. 

4  Dunglison,  loc.  dt.,  p.  410. 


298  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

There  were  not  less  than  three  nor  more  than  five 
male  pigs  in  every  litter,  or  just  as  near  half  of  each 
as  there  could  be."  l 

Notwithstanding  these  conclusive  cases,  experi- 
ments are  now  in  progress  of  a  similar  character,  to 
test  the  practicability  of  breeding  the  sexes  at  will.3 

A  theory  was  advanced  by  Prof.  Thury,  of  the 
Academy  of  Geneva,  that  for  a  time  was  quite  popu- 
lar, and  is  now  frequently  advocated,  although  it  is 
readily  disproved  by  direct  observation.  The  first 
notice  of  this  theory  in  this  country  was  published  in 
the  Country  Gentleman,  from  which  we  make  the  fol- 
lowing quotations :  "  The  sex  depends,"  says  M.  Thu- 
ry, "  upon  the  degree  of  maturity  of  the  egg  at  the 
moment  of  fecundation,  that  which  has  not  reached  a 
certain  degree  of  maturity  producing  the  female,  and, 
if  fecundated  when  this  point  of  maturity  has  passed, 
producing  a  male." 

The  theory,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  based  upon  the 
supposition  that  "  the  production  of  male  organs  arises 
from  the  greater  maturity  and  more  complete  develop- 
ment of  the  germ," 9  which  is  directly  in  conflict  with 
observations  on  the  lower  animals  quoted  below. 

Some  startling  results  were  claimed  to  have  been 
obtained,  in  experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of 
testing  the  truth  of  the  theory,  but  they  need  verifi- 
cation before  they  can  be  accepted  as  evidence. 

Although  there  are  but  few  cases  on  record  in 
which  exact  statements  are  made  of  the  facts  bearing 

1  Country  Gentleman,  June,  1865,  p.  364. 

*  See  Scientific  Farmer,  1876,  p.  181. 

3  Country  Gentleman,  January  7,  1864,  p.  12. 


SEX.  299 

on  this  theory,  the  observed  results  of  ordinary  farm- 
practice  are  sufficient  to  disprove  it. 

On  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  farm,  when 
under  my  direction,  the  births  for  ten  years  were  as 
follows:  Sheep,  102.5  males  to  100  females;  cattle, 
118.4  males  to  100  females. 

The  system  pursued  for  the  entire  time  was  the 
same.  The  rams  were  turned  with  the  ewes  every 
forenoon  during  the  breeding-season ;  and  the  cows, 
as  a  rule,  were  served  as  soon  as  they  were  discovered 
to  be  in  heat,  the  herd  being  frequently  visited  during 
the  day,  and  driven  to  the  barn  every  night  and  morn- 
ing. With  very  few  exceptions,  the  females  were 
served  during  the  first  half  of  the  period  of  heat, 
which,  according  to  the  theory  of  M.  Thury,  should 
have  given  a  very  large  proportion  of  females. 

The  records  show  some  remarkable  facts  that  will 
be  recognized  by  breeders  as  fairly  representing  the 
general  experience  of  farmers.  In  1864  and  1865  the 
bull-calves  were  2.5  to  1  heifer ;  in  1866  and  186T  the 
heifers  were  considerably  in  excess  ;  in  1868  and  1869 
the  heifers  were  nearly  2  to  1  bull ;  in  1870  the  bulls 
were  decidedly  more  numerous ;  and  in  1871  and  1872 
there  were  more  than  2  bulls  to  1  heifer.  In  1872 
there  were  2  rams  to  1  ewe,  and  the  bulls  were  nearly 
in  the  same  proportion  to  the  heifers,  which  would 
seem  to  indicate  some  peculiar  influence  of  the  season 
in  favor  of  the  males.  In  1871,  however,  the  bulls 
were  largely  in  excess  of  the  cow-calves,  and  there 
was  quite  as  decided  a  preponderance  of  females  among 
the  sheep. 

On  "Waushakum  farm,  according  to  Dr.  Sturte- 


300  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

vant,  the  Ayrshires,  during  nine  and  a  half  years,  pro- 
duced "54  bull-calves  and  43  cow-calves — a  propor- 
tion of  125.5  males  to  100  females ; "  while  the  Ayr- 
shires  of  the  Oneida  Community  produced  "  26  bull 
and  31  heifer  calves — a  proportion  of  83.8  male  to 
100  female  births."  * 

Although  the  last-mentioned  cases  have  no  direct 
bearing  upon  the  theory  in  question — the  period  of 
heat  at  which  copulation  took  place  not  being  stated 
— they  are  of  interest  in  this  connection,  as  they  fairly 
represent  the  variations  that  take  place  without  ap- 
parent cause,  under  ordinary  methods  of  management. 

In  the  following  cases  of  late  impregnation,  re- 
ported by  Mr.  Slade,  the  males  are  in  excess,  as  they 
were  also  in  some  of  the  instances  of  early  impreg- 
nation above  mentioned.  "  Three  years  ago  last 
spring,"  says  Mr.  Slade,  "  I  had  a  very  likely  sow  that 
was  in  heat,  and  I  let  her  remain  thirty-six  hours  be- 
fore taking  her  to  the  boar.  The  result  was  she  had 
seventeen  pigs ;  eleven  of  them  were  males  and  the 
others  females.  ...  At  the  next  litter  she  remained 
about  the  same  length  of  time  in  heat  before  taking 
the  boar,  and  had  nine  male  and  two  female  pigs."  * 

On  many  farms  the  males  run  with  the  breeding 
females  during  the  season,  so  that  copulation  takes 
place  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  heat ;  and  yet 
in  such  cases  there  is  nearly  an  equal  number  of  each 
sex  on  the  average,  taking  a  number  of  years  together, 
while  the  males  may  be  in  excess  one  year  and  the 
females  in  excess  another  year. 

1  Scientific  Farmer,  1876,  p.  166. 

3  "Massachusetts  Agricultural  Report,"  1866-'67,  p.  117. 


SEX.  301 

The  physiological  objections  to  this  theory,  so  far 
as  any  practical  advantages  that  might  be  derived 
from  it  are  concerned,  are  quite  as  forcible  as  the 
results  of  direct  observation. 

Fecundation,  as  is  well  known,  is  the  result  of  the 
union  of  the  spermatozoa  of  the  male  element  with 
the  ovum.  Now,  this  conjunction  of  the  male  and 
the  female  elements  of  generation  does  not  take  place, 
in  the  higher  animals  at  least,  at  the  time  of  copula- 
tion, and  it  is  therefore  impossible  to  determine,  in 
any  particular  case,  the  precise  time  that  fecundation 
takes  place.  Observations  upon  the  lower  animals 
show  that  the  spermatozoa  may  come  in  contact  with 
the  ovum  in  the  uterus,  in  the  course  of  the  Fallopian 
tube,  or  at  the  ovary.1 

The  precise  period  at  which  the  ovum  escapes 
from  the  ovary  is  uncertain ;  some  of  the  best  author- 
ities are  of  the  opinion  that  the  regular  time  for  its 
escape  is  toward  the  termination  of  the  period  of  heat, 
while  Coste  has  shown  that  it  may  escape  in  the  early 
part  of  the  period,  or  toward  its  close.3 

The  conditions  that  determine  the  time  of  contact 
of  the  spermatozoa  and  the  ovum  are  therefore  ex- 
ceedingly variable,  and  they  may  favor  an  earlier 
impregnation  of  the  germ  in  cases  of  copulation  tow- 
ard the  close  of  the  period  of  heat  than  would  be  pro- 
duced in  other  cases  when  copulation  took  place  at 
the  beginning  of  the  period. 

Experiments  with  dogs  and  rabbits  show  that  sev- 
eral days  may  elapse  after  copulation  before  the  sper- 

1  Dalton's  "  Human  Physiology,"  p.  562. 

2  Ibid.,  p.  661. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


matozoa  come  in  contact  with  the  ovum  to  produce 
impregnation.1 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Se- 
verac,  on  the  3d  of  July,  1826,  M.  Charles  Girou  de 
Buzareingues  proposed  "to  divide  a  flock  of  sheep 
into  two  equal  parts,  so  that  a  greater  number  of 
males  or  females,  at  the  choice  of  the  proprietor, 
should  be  produced  from  each  of  them.  Two  of  the 
members  of  the  society  offered  their  flocks  to  become 
the  subjects  of  his  experiments," a  the  results  of  which 
are  given  in  the  following  table. 

The  principle  of  division  was  to  place  young  rams 
with  strong,  well-fed  ewes,  for  ewe-lambs,  and  a  ma- 
tured, vigorous  ram  with  weaker  ewes,  for  ram-lambs. 

The  first  experiment  gave  the  following  results : 


Flock  for  Female  Lambs  served  by 
two  Rams,  one  fifteen  Months  and 
the  other  nearly  two  Years  old. 

Flock  for  Male  Lambs  served  by 
two  Strong  Rams,  one  four  and 
the  other  five  Years  old. 

Age  of  Mothers. 

BEX  OF  LAMBS. 

Age  of  Mothers. 

SEX  OF  LAMBS. 

Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

14 
16 
5 

26 
29 
21 

Two  years  
Three  years  
Four  years  

7 
15 
83 

8 
14 
14 

Three  years  
Four  years  

Total 

85 

18 

76 

8 

Total   

55 
25 

81 

24 

Five    years     and 
over 

Five    years   and 

Total 

58 

64 

Total  

80 

55 

There  were  three  twin-births  in  this 
flock. 

No  twin-births  in  this  flock. 

1  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  465 ;  Car- 
penter's  "  Human  Physiology,"  p.  967. 

9  The  experiments  were  published  in  the  "  Annales  de  1'Agricul- 
ture  Fran9aise,"  vols.  xxxvii.,  xxxviii.,  and  a  summary  from  which  we 
quote  will  be  found  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  i., 
May,  1828,  p.  63. 


SEX.  303 

In  the  second  experiment  the  ewes  were  divided 
into  three  sections. 

The  first  section  included  the  strongest  ewes  from 
four  to  five  years  old,  which  were  better  fed  than  the 
others.  It  was  served  by  four  ram-lambs,  about  six 
months  old. 

In  the  second  section  were  the  weakest  ewes, 
under  four  or  above  five  years  old.  They  were 
served  by  "  two  strong  rams,"  more  than  three  years 
old. 

The  third  section  consisted  of  ewes  belonging  to 
the  shepherds,  "which  are  in  general  stronger  and 
better  fed  than  those  of  the  master,  because  their 
owners  are  not  always  particular  in  preventing  them 
from  trespassing  on  the  cultivated  lands  that  are  not 
inclosed."  These  ewes  were  served  by  the  same  rams 
as  section  two. 

Males.  Females. 

The  first  section  gave  .     '  .        .        .15  25 

"    second  "         "      ..-:..        26  14 

"    third     "         "    .        .  ;    *'••".     10  12 

In  the  first  section  were  two  twin-births — four 
females.  In  the  second  and  third  there  were  also  two 
— three  males  and  one  female. 

These  experiments  were  considered  almost  conclu- 
sive ;  but  it  will  be  observed  that  the  results  are  not 
more  remarkable  for  the  range  of  variations  presented 
in  the  relative  numbers  of  each  sex  than  were  ob- 
tained in  my  experience  in  different  years  with  ani- 
mals under  the  same  management. 

The  number  of  animals  under  observation  in  these 
experiments  is  too  small  to  give  the  results  any  value 


304  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

as  a  basis  of  generalization,  and  the  same  objection 
may  be  made  to  the  cases  collected  by  Hofacker  and 
Sadler,  which  we  quote  from  Carpenter  : l 

"  The  following  table  expresses  the  average  results 
obtained  by  M.  Hofacker  in  Germany,  and  by  M. 
Sadler  in  Britain,  between  which  it  will  be  seen  that 
there  is  a  manifest  correspondence,  although  loth  were 
drawn  from  a  too  limited  series  of  observations.  The 
numbers  indicate  the  proportion  of  male  births  to  a 
hundred  females,  under  the  several  conditions  men- 
tioned in  the  first  column  : " 

Hofacker. 

Father  younger  than  mother    .  .        .        .90.6 

"      and  mother  of  equal  age  .        .        .          90.0 

"      older  by    1  to    6  years  .        .        .     103.4 

"         "      "     6  "     9      "  .        .        .        124.7 

"          "      "     9  "  18      "    .  .        .        .     143.7 

"          "      "   18  and  more  .        .        .        200.0 

Sadler. 

Father  younger  than  mother    ....  86.5 

"      and  mother  of  equal  age    .        .       %  94.8 

"      older  by    1  to    6  years         .        .        .  103.7 

"         "      "     6  "  11     "         .        .        .  126.7 

"         "      "   11  "  16      "    .        .        .        .  147.7 

"          "      "   16  and  more        .        .        ,  ;  163.2 

"  From  the  statistics  recorded  in  the  peerages  and 
baronetages  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the  proportion 
of  male  to  a  hundred  female  births  is  stated  by  Na- 
pier to  be  as  below : "  a 

390  parents  of  equal  age        ".        .        .        .        .        .      91.8 

276  fathers  1  year  older  than  mothers         .        .        .        101.3 

1  "  Human  Physiology,"  p.  1016. 

8  Scientific  Farmer,  1876,  p.  180,  credited  by  Dr.  Sturtevant  to  the 
Journal  of  the  Anthropological  Society ',  1867,  vol.  cxix. 


SEX.  305 

312  fathers    2-  3  years  older  than  mothers  ...      .  .  101.8 

211  "  4-  6  "  "  "  "       ,  .-  108.0 

200  "  6-10  u  "  "  "  .  ...  .  130.1 

168  "  10-16  u  "  "  "       .  .  .  -  144.3 

120  "  17-25  **  "  "  "  .  .        .  '.  189.7 

80  "  26-32  "  "  "  "        .  '  .  .'  '  125.6 

45  "  33-40  "  "  "  "  .  112.6 

18  "  40-50  "  "  "  (mother  under  25)  115.4 

13  "  40-50  "  "  "  '       (      "  over  25)  91.6 

MOTHERS   OLDER  THAN   FATHERS. 

88  mothers  from    1-  3  years  older 94.3 

77        "          "       3-5     "        "           .,..  -*.i, i   .    4  u  88.8 

66        "          u       5-10     "        " 77.1 

43        "          "     10-15     "        "          ;  '•"';  V"     .        .  60.6 

17        "          "     15-22     "        "      .        ...        .  48.3 

Notwithstanding  the  apparent  uniform  increase  in 
the  proportion  of  male  births  in  the  cases  in  which 
the  father  is  from  six  to  twenty-five  years  older  than 
the  mother,  it  would  not  be  safe  to  attribute  the  vari- 
ation to  age  alone. 

In  the  first  1,189  cases  in  the  table,  in  which  the 
parents  are  of  equal  age,  or  the  fathers  are  from  one 
to  six  years  older  than  the  mothers,  the  average  pro- 
portion of  male  births  is  below  the  general  average, 
as  shown  by  other  statistics ;  but,  as  the  fathers  have 
the  advantage  of  the  mothers  in  age  in  799  of  these 
cases,  the  proportion  of  male  births  should  be  consid- 
erably higher.  Instead  of  comparing  the  special  cases 
collected  with  one  another,  would  it  not  be  more  satis- 
factory to  compare  them  with  the  average  of  all  cases 
that  can  be  obtained,  without  reference  to  age  ? 

In  the  first  1,189  cases  above  noticed  there  would 

be,  according  to  the  table,  593  male  children  and  596 
14 


306 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


female  children,  or  in  the  proportion  of  99.5  males  to 
10Q  females. 

Of  the  children  born  in  Great  Britain  it  is  said 
that  there  are  104.75  males  to  100  females,1  the  pro- 
portion of  males  being  more  than  five  per  cent,  larger 
than  in  the  cases  under  consideration. 

The  following  table,  from  the  report  of  the  Census 
Commissioners  of  Ireland  for  1841,'  gives  the  propor- 
tion of  sexes  in  the  largest  number  of  cases  in  which 
the  relative  ages  of  the  parents  are  stated,  that  has 
come  to  my  knowledge  : 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  FECUNDITY  OP  IRISH  MARRIAGES  FROM  1830  TO 

1841. 


it 

AGES. 

o   „• 

1! 

•8  £ 

NUMBER  OF 
CHILDREN. 

Total 
of 

111 

lit 

1* 

Husbands. 

Wives. 

*s  ^ 

a  ° 

11 

Males. 

Females. 

Children. 

I1! 

|"0  a 
&        ° 

*H  aj 

under  17 

under  17 

34 

661 

872 

821 

1,693 

106 

2.56 

0  be 

17  to  25 

17  to  25 

42 

159,761 

195,895 

185,918 

381,808 

105 

2.39 

S^ 

26  "  35 

26  "85 

61 

58,290 

63,143 

60,012 

123,155 

105 

2.11 

•f3 

86  "  45 

86  "45 

81 

8,354 

1,665 

1,480 

8,145 

112 

.94 

46  "  55 

48  "  55 

101 

428 

44 

51 

95 

86 

.22 

H 

above  65 

above  55 

110 

136 

11 

6 

17 

183 

.12 

Totals  and  averages  

222,630 

261,630 

248,283 

509,913 

105 

2  29 

17  to  25 

under  17 

88 

9,847 

18,203 

12,558 

25,761 

105 

2.62 

i 

26  "  85 

under  17 
}    17  to  25 

47 
51 

4,066 
128,718 

5,171 
159,081 

5,074 
150,090 

10,245 
309,171 

102 
106 

2.52 
2.40 

§> 

under  17 

57 

813 

402 

373 

775 

108 

2.48 

*s  . 

86  "  45 

•j    17  to  25 

61 

14,325 

17,478 

16,270 

83,748 

107 

2.85 

1 

26  "  85 
'  under  17 

71 

67 

15,596 
86 

15,466 
87 

14,380 
37 

29,846 

74 

107 
100 

1.91 

2.05 

1* 

46  "  55 

I    17  to  25 
1    26  "  85 

71 
81 

1,516 
2,469 

1,615 
2,109 

1,564 
2,011 

3,179 
4,120 

103 
105 

2.10 
1.67 

S 

86  "  45 

91 

1,835 

493 

445 

938 

111 

.70 

•5  ** 

under  17 

72 

18 

8 

15 

23 

53 

1.28 

8 

17  to  25 

76 

240 

198 

209 

407 

95 

1.C9 

.n 

above  55 

-     26  "  35 

85 

461 

277 

2T3 

550 

101 

1.19 

0 

86  "  45 

95 

429 

107 

79 

186 

185 

.43 

n 

46  "  55 

105 

295 

14 

15 

29 

98 

.10 

Totals  and  £ 

iverages    

179,659 

215,659 

203,893 

419,052 

106 

2.38 

1  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  478. 

a  Copied  from  Walford's  "  Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  189. 


SEX. 


SOT 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  FECUNDITY  OP  IRISH  MARRIAGES  PROM  1830  TO 
1841.— (Continued.] 


Description 
of  Marriage. 

AGES. 

Sum  of  Ages  of 
Both  Parents. 

Number  of 
Marriages. 

NUMBER  OP 
CHILDEEN. 

Total 
of 
Children. 

Proportion  of 
Males  to 
100  Females. 

o       & 

§§| 

in 

d,            0 

2.56 
2.08 

Husbands. 

Wives. 

Males. 

Femalei. 

Wives  who  are  older  than  their 
Husbands. 

under  17 

17  to  25 

26  "  85 

36  "  45 

46  "  55| 

17  to  25 
26  "  35 

36  "  45 
46  "  55 
above  55 
'   26  to  85 
36  "  45 
46  "  55 
1  above  55 
i    86  to  45 
\    46  "  55 
{  above  55 
j    46  to  55 
\  above  55 
"     55 

38 
47 
57 
67 
72 
51 
61 
71 
76 
71 
81 
85 
91 
95 
105 

757 
92 
4 
1 

21,287 
744 
35 
8 
2,413 
145 
12 
227 
15 
62 

996 
90 

944 

97 

1,940 

187 

105 
93 

2 

21,934 
872 
10 

2 

43,022 

770 
18 

io'i' 

93 
125 

2  '.02 
1.08 
.51 

21,088 
398 
8 

1,225 
40 

1,147 
84 

2,372 
74 

10T 

118 

.98 
.51 

49 
3 
2 

89 

88 
8 
6 

126 
'67' 

.39 

"io 

1.88 
2.28 

3 

Totals  and  i 

iverages  

25,788 

24,723 

28,758 

48,481 

104 

General  totals  and  averages  .  . 

428,077 

502,012 

475,434 

977,446 

105 

When  the  parents  are  of  equal  age,  of  509,913  children  there 

are  105  males  to  100  females. 
When  the  father  is  older  than  the  mother,  of  419,052  children 

there  are  106  males  to  100  females. 
When  the  mother  is  older  than  the  father,  of  48,481  children 

there  are  104  to  100  females. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  instances,  where  the 
number  of  children  is  small,  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  range  of  variation  in  the  proportion  of  the  sexes, 
under  the  different  conditions  mentioned  in  the  table, 
is  exceedingly  small  in  comparison  with  the  variations 
in  the  preceding  tables. 

M.  Martegoute  states  that  at  the  sheepfold  of  the 
Dishley  Mauchamp  merinos  of  M.  Yiallet,  at  Blanc, 
the  rams  at  the  commencement  of  the  rutting-season 
got  more  males  than  females  ;  when  the  ewes  came  in 


308  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

heat  in  greater  numbers,  and  the  vigor  of  the  ram 
was  diminished,  he  got  a  larger  proportion  of  fe- 
males; and  toward  the  close,  when  the  ewes  to  be 
served  were  less  numerous,  the  vigor  of  the  ram  be- 
ing restored,  the  procreation  of  males  was  again  in 
excess. 

He  concludes  also  that  "  the  ewes  that  have  pro- 
duced the  female  lambs  are,  on  an  average,  of  a 
weight  superior  to  those  that  produced  the  males; 
and  they  evidently  lose  more  in  weight  than  these 
last  during  the  suckling  period ; "  and  that  "  the  ewes 
that  produce  males  weigh  less,  and  do  not  lose  in 
nursing  so  much  as  the  others."  l 

I  am  not  aware  of  any  facts  to  corroborate  this 
statement  of  M.  Martegoute,  which  is  not  in  accord- 
ance with  the  experience  of  breeders  generally. 

It  may  be  that  the  relative  age  and  vigor  of  the 
parents  has  an  influence,  in  connection  with  other  con- 
ditions, in  determining  sex ;  but  that  the  influence  is 
so  marked  as  to  be  of  any  practical  utility  in  breeding 
the  sexes  at  will  remains  yet  to  be  proved. 

The  uniformity  in  the  proportion  of  the  sexes, 
shown  by  statistics,  in  different  localities,  representing 
a  great  variety  in  the  conditions  of  life,  indicates  the 
existence  of  some  general  law  that  determines  the  sex 
of  offspring  that  is  constant  in  its  action. 

The  proportion  of  males  to  a  hundred  females  in 
the  different  countries  of  Europe  is  reported  as  fol- 
lows : 2 

1  "  Principles  of  Breeding,"  by  Goodale,  pp.  91,  92. 

2  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  478,  and 
"  Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  by  Walford,  vol.  i.,  p.  315. 


SEX. 


309 


Great  Britain    .  .  . 

France         .  .  "  .J        •• 

Prussia  .  .        -    . 

Sweden       .... 
"Wtlrtemberg      . 

Westphalia  and  the  Rhenish  provinces 
Bohemia  .... 

Netherlands 
Saxony  and  Silesia 
Austria        » 
Sicily     . 
Brandenburg 

Mecklenburg     .... 
Mailand        .... 
Russia   ..... 
Jews          in  Prussia 
"  "  Breslau   . 

"  Leghorn         %  , 
Christians  "         "         .  . 

Austria,  1830-'47    .  ."      .    . 

Baden,  1835-'55  ,f, 

Bavaria,  1835-'51    . 
Belgium,  1841-'50         .  *    -         . 

Denmark,  1835-'49  . 
England,  1843-'52        .  < 

France,  1817-'54     . 
Hanover,  1824-'43         .  . 

Holland,  1840^53    . 
Norway,  1801-'55 
Prussia,  1816-'52     .  .    '        . 

Saxony,  1834-'49 
Scotland,  1855-'56  . 
Sweden,  1749-1855      .    '    '    . 


104.75 

106.55 

103.38 

106.94 

105.90 

104.72 

105.69 

105.86 

105.38 

106.44 

106.05 

106.10 

106.18 

106.27 

107.07 

107.61 

108.91 

112.00 

114.00 

120.00 

104.00 

106.6 

105.9 

106.3 

105.2 

105.5 

104.7 

106.2 

106.5 

106.5 

105.9 

105.7 

106.5 

105.3 

104.4 


310 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


According  to  M.  Quetelet,  the  proportion  of  sexes 
in  Europe  is  106  males  to  100  females.1 

The  statements  in  the  next  table  were  compiled 
by  Dr.  H.  B.  Baker,  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of 
Health,  Lansing,  Michigan  : a 


Period 

BIB 

CHS. 

Total 

Unknown 

Males  to 

(Dates  Inclusive). 

Males. 

Femalei. 

Births. 

Sex. 

Females. 

Michigan 

Year  ending 

H 

April  5,  1868. 
Remaining  9 

10,088 

9,284 

19,544 

172 

108.6 

M 

months  1868. 
1869 

10,133 
14,071 

9,003 
12,958 

19,171 
27,093 

85 
64 

112.5 

108.5 

u            

1870 

1871 

13,846 
13,596 

12,726 
12,327 

26,663 
25,992 

91 
69 

108.8 
110.2 

u 

1872 

14,311 

13,812 

27,706 

83 

107.5 

New  York  City.. 
Philadelphia  

1869  to  1872 
1853   "  1872 
1820   "  1840 
1861    "  1873 

65,824 
121,745 
74,790 
116,212 

51,323 
113,443 
69,597 
105,089 

107,454 
235,548 
144,387 
221.301 

307 
360 

108.7 
107.3 
107.46 
110.5 

Providence  
Ehode  Island  
Vermont 

1854   "  1872 
1854   "  1872 
1'857   "  1870 

16,145 
42,674 
45,576 

15,351 

40,887 
42,932 

31,496 
83,210 
88,994 

'i49 

486 

105.2 
105.6 
106.1 

Massachusetts... 
Connecticut 

1849   "  1853 
1865   "  1870 
1856   "  1871 

73,459 
107,856 
84,486 

68,665 
101,805 
76,797 

142,a30 
209,989 
162,510 

706 
828 
1,227 

106.9 
105.9 
110.0 

Total  and  average 

738,767 

685,389 

1,427,717 

8,568 

107.8 

1850 

593  422 

104  2 

1851 

615,865 

104.7 

H 

1852 

624,012 

104  6 

u 

1858 

612,391 

105.1 

H 

1854 

684,405 

104.4 

Average  . 

104.6 

Variations  in  the  proportions  of  the  sexes  from 
unknown  causes  are  of  frequent  occurrence ;  but  their 
limited  range  and  slight  divergence  from  the  average 
only  show  the  constancy  of  the  general  law  under  a 
great  variety  of  conditions. 

"  In  France,  during  forty-four  years,  the  male  to 

1  Churchill's  "  Midwifery,"  p.  140 ;  Carpenter's  "  Human  Physiol- 
ogy," p.  1014. 

8  Michigan  "Fifth  Registration  Report,"  1871,  pp.  93-112. 


SEX. 


311 


the  female  births  have  been  as  106.2  to  100;  but 
during  this  period  it  has  occurred  five  times  in  one 
department  and  six  times  in  another  that  the  female 
births  have  exceeded  the  male." 

"  In  some  districts  of  Norway,"  according  to  Prof. 
Faye,  "there  has  been,  during  a  decennial  period,  a 
steady  deficiency  of  boys,  while  in  others  the  opposite 
condition  has  existed."  2 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  excess  of  male  over 
female  births  is  diminished  in  the  case  of  illegitimate 
children. 

Mr.  Babbage  has  compiled  the  following  table : 3 


PLACES. 

LEGITIMATE  BIRTH8. 

ILLEGITIMATE  BIETH8. 

Number 
observed. 

Males  to  100 
Females. 

Number 
observed. 

Males  to  100 
Females. 

104.84 
102.67 
102.78 
100.39 
100.81 

France.                 

9,656,135 
1,059,055 
8,672,251 
151,169 
25,064 

106.57 
104.45 
106.09 
104.71 
107.07 

673,047 
51,309 
212,804 
19,950 
2,735 

Naples 

Prussia  

Westphalia 

Mean 

105  75 

102.50 

In  England,  according  to  Walfor .1,  from  1851  to 
1869  the  proportion  of  males  in  illegitimate  births 
was  smaller  than  in  the  case  of  legitimate  births  in 
the  years  1851,  '53,  '56,  '57,  '60,  '62,  and  65,  and 
larger  in  the  years  1852,  '54,  '55,  '58,  '59,  '61,  '63,  '64, 
'66,  '67,  '68,  and  '69,  a  preponderance  being  in  favor 
of  an  increase  of  males  in  illegitimate  births.4 

1  "  Descent  of  Man,"  vol.  L,  p.  291. 

2  Darwin,  loc.  cit.,  p.  291. 

3  Dunglison's  "  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  411. 

4  Walford's  "  Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  i.,  p.  315. 


312 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


Of  other  countries  the  following  statistics   are 
given : 


PLACES. 

Legitimate 
Mnle> 
to  100  Fomales. 

Illegitimate 
Males 
to  100  Females. 

Prussia  (1820-'34)  

106  0 

103  1 

France  

106  7 

104  8 

Naples  (1819-'24)  

104  5 

103  7 

Austria  

106  2 

104  2 

Wurtemberg  .  . 

106  0 

103  5 

Sweden  

104  T 

103  1 

Bohemia  

105  7 

100  4 

Westphalia  (1809-11) 

104  7 

100  4 

East  Prussia  and  Posen  .  .  . 

105  8 

108  6 

Paris  

103  8 

103  4 

Geneva  (ISli-'SS)  

109  0 

101  5 

Amsterdam  

105  0 

108  8 

Leipsic  

106  2 

105  9 

Montpellier  (1772-'92)  

107  1 

100  8 

Frankfort-on-the-Main  

102.8 

107.81 

Amsterdam  and  Frankfort,  with  England,  seem  to 
form  exceptions  to  the  rule  indicated  by  the  statistics 
of  other  localities. 

In  Michigan  the  proportion  of  males  to  100  females 
in  1870  was  108.1  for  illegitimate,  and  108.8  for  all 
births ;  and  in  1871  it  was  80.0  for  illegitimate,  and 
110.29  for  all  births.2 

In  Massachusetts,  for  twenty-three  years,  the  pro- 
portion of  male  to  female  birjbhs,  of  all  classes,  was 
107.7  to  100,  while  for  illegitimate  for  the  same  pe- 
riod it  was  93.4  to  100.8 

It  has  been  stated  that  "the  first  children  of  a 
marriage  consist  of  a  greater  number  of  females  and 
fewer  males,  in  the  proportion,  according  to  Burdach, 
of  53  male  births  to  100  females,"  *  and  this  may  per- 

1  "Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  i.,  p.  316. 

8  Michigan  "  Fifth  Registration  Report,"  1871,  pp.  93,  94. 

3  Scientific  Farmer,  1876,  p.  166. 

4  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  478. 


SEX.  313 

haps  serve  to  explain  the  preponderance  of  female 
births  among  illegitimate  children. 

Statistics  of  the  relative  numbers  of  the  sexes  at 
the  time  of  birth  among  domestic  animals  have  not 
been  published  to  any  considerable  extent,  and  the 
data  that  are  needed  for  a  satisfactory  discussion  of 
this  subject  remain  in  the  hands  of  individual  breed- 
ers. 

The  most  extended  collection  of  statistics  relating 
to  this  subject  within  my  knowledge  has  been  made 
by  Mr.  Darwin,1  from  which  the  following  statements 
are  compiled : 

From  the  limited  number  of  cases  under  discus- 
sion, and  the  manner  in  which  the  facts  have  been 
collected,  the  real  proportion  of  the  sexes  at  birth 
may  not  be  correctly  represented  by  these  statistics. 

Still-born  animals,  and  those  that  die  at  an  early 
age,  are  not  as  a  rule  forwarded  by  breeders  to  the 
press  for  publication.  Moreover,  the  records  are  usu- 
ally made  only  by  those  who  are  interested  in  making 
sales  of  breeding-stock;  and  their  methods  of  man- 
agement, or  the  selections  made  for  their  own  pur- 
poses, may  have  an  influence  in  modifying  the  results. 

Mr.  Tegetmeier  tabulated  for  Mr.  Darwin  from 
the  "Kacing  Calendar"  "the  births  of  race-horses 
during  a  period  of  twenty-one  years,  viz.,  from  1846 
to  1867 — 1849  being  omitted,  as  no  returns  were  that 
year  published.  The  total  births  have  been  25,560, 
consisting  of  12,763  males  and  12,797  females,  or  in 
the  proportion  of  99.7  males  to  100  females.  ...  In 
1856  the  male  horses  were  as  107.1,  and  in  1867  as 

1  "  Descent  of  Man,"  vol.  i.,  pp.  293-300. 


314  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

only  92.6  to  100  females.  In  the  tabulated  returns 
the  proportions  vary  in  cycles,  for  the  males  exceeded 
the  females  during  six  successive  years,  and  the  fe- 
males exceeded  the  males  during  two  -periods  each  of 
four  years."  * 

A  writer  in  the  London  Field  (probably  Mr. 
Tegetmeier)  in  1868  makes  the  statement  that,  "  dur- 
ing the  past  four  years,"  3,241  fillies  against  3,102 
colts  have  been  produced.8 

Of  cattle,  Mr.  Darwin  "  received  returns  from  nine 
gentlemen,  of  982  births,  too  few  to  be  trusted.  These 
consisted  of  477  bull-calves  and  505  cow-calves ;  i.  e., 
in  the  proportion  of  94.4  males  to  100  females."  3 

Mr.  C.  £L  Bement  gives  the  record  of  the  birth 
of  62  animals  in  1839-'43,  of  which  36  were  males 
and  26  females — a  proportion  of  138.4  males  to  100 
females. 

"  In  another  record  of  Short-Horn  cattle,  54  bull 
and  52  cow  calves  were  produced — a  proportion  of 
103.8  male  to  100  female  calves."  And  "  in  another 
case,  out  of  573  entries  of  Short-Horn  births,  235  of 
the  calves  were  male,  and  238  female — a  proportion 
here  of  98.3  males  to  100  females."  4 

Mr.  Darwin  "  received  returns  from  four  gentle- 

1  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  293,  294.  In  a  note,  p.  293,  Mr.  Darwin  says:  "Dur- 
ing 1866,  809  male  colts  and  816  female  colts  were  born,  and  743 
mares  failed  to  produce  offspring.  During  1867,  836  males  and  902 
females  were  born,  and  794  mares  failed." 

a  Country  Gentleman,  September,  1868,  p.  190.      , 

3  Loc.  cit.,  p.  295. 

4  Scientific  Farmer,  1876,  p.  166;  the  first  item  from  the  American 
Journal  of  Medical  Science,  October,  1845,  p.  520,  and  the  last  two  from 
the  National  Live-Stock  Journal,  1872,  p.  21,  and  1874,  p.  375. 


SEX.  315 

men  in  England,  who  have  bred  lowland  sheep,  chiefly 
Leicesters,  during  the  last  ten  or  sixteen  years.  They 
amount  altogether  to  8,965  births,  consisting  of  4,407 
males  and  4,558  females,  that  is  in  the  proportion  of 
96.7  males  to  100  females.  With  respect  to  Cheviot 
and  Black-faced  sheep,"  he  "received  returns  from 
six  breeders,  two  of  them  on  a  large  scale,  chiefly  for 
the  years  1867-'69,  but  some  of  the  returns  extending 
back  to  1862.  The  total  number  recorded  amounts 
to  50,685,  consisting  of  25,071  males  and  25,614 
females,  or  in  the  proportion  of  97.9  males  to  100 
females.  If  we  take  the  English  and  Scotch  returns 
together,  the  total  number  amounts  to  59,650,  consist- 
ing of  29,478  males  and  30,172  females,  or  as  97.7  to 
100."  1 

So  far  as  numbers  alone'  are  concerned,  the  statis- 
tics of  the  sexes  of  sheep  are  more  satiafactory  than 
of  any  other  class  of  domestic  animals ;  but  there  are 
other  facts  that  will  undoubtedly  modify  the  results 
obtained. 

In  the  human  family,  and  also  in  many  instances 
with  the  lower  animals,  it  has  been  found  that  the 
males,  at  birth,  are  considerably  in  excess  of  the  fe- 
males. 

The  death-rate  of  males,  however,  at  an  early  age, 
is  decidedly  greater  than  it  is  in  females,  so  that  the 
differences  at  birth  are  gradually  diminished. 

Maitland,  in  his  "  History  of  London,"  1739,  says : 
"  From  the  year  1657  to  that  of  1738,  during  which  time 
of  eighty  years  there  appear  to  have  been  christened 
619,187  males  and  585,334  females,  and  buried  994,- 

1  "Descent  of  Man,"  vol.  i.,  p.  295. 


316  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

656  males  and  965,294  females,  which  in  the  christen- 
ing amount  to  33,853  more  males  than  females,  which 
is  five  and  a  half  per  cent,  in  favor  of  the  former ;  and 
in  the  burials  29,358,  which  is  likewise  three  per  cent, 
in  favor  of  the  males."  1 

"  For  every  100  still-born  females,  we  have  in  sev- 
eral countries  from  134.9  to  144.9  still-born  males." 
And,  also,  "  during  the  first  four  or  five  years  of  life, 
more  male  children  die  than  females.  For  example, 
in  England,  during  the  first  year,  126  boys  die  for 
every  100  girls — a  proportion  which  in  France  is  still 
more  unfavorable."  a  . 

In  Michigan,  for  the  year  1871,  the  deaths  of 
children  under  one  year  of  age  were  128.1  males  to 
100  females ;  and  of  those  under  one  month,  including 
still-born,  138.3  males  died  to  100  females;  and  in 
1870  the  proportion  was  121.34  to  100  females  for  the 
first  year.3 

Carpenter  states  that  there  are  on  the  average  three 
still-born  males  to  two  females ;  and  that,  of  deaths 
during  early  infancy,  the  proportion  of  males  to 
females  is  four  to  three  during  the  first  two  months.4 

"Several  great  breeders  in  Scotland,"  says  Mr. 
Darwin,  "who  annually  raise  some  thousand  sheep, 
are  firmly  convinced  that  a  larger  proportion  of  males 
than  of  females  die  during  the  first  one  or  two 


1  Waif ord'a  "  Insurance  Cyclopedia,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  204. 

2  Darwin,  loc.  tit.,  p.  292,  on  the  authority  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Medico- Chirurgical  Review,  April,  1867,  p.  343.     See  also  article  "  Fe- 
male Life  "  in  Walford's  "  Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  203,  etc. 

8  Michigan  "  Fifth  Registration  Report,"  1871,  pp.  101,  170,  174. 
4  "  Human  Physiology,"  p.  1015. 


SEX.  317 

years ; "  *  and  it  is  at  least  probable  that  this  is  true 
with  other  classes  of  animals. 

If  with  sheep  the  enumeration  of  the  sexes  takes 
place  at  the  time  of  castration  of  the  rams,  several 
months  after  birth,  which  is  the  common  practice,  the 
proportion  of  males,  as  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Darwin, 
would  be  too  small.  This  element  of  error  should  not 
be  overlooked  in  statistics  of  animals  derived  from 
published  records  of  births,  as  the  animals  that  die 
young,  including  the  still-born,  are  not  likely  to  be 
recorded ;  and  of  these  the  largest  proportion  will  in 
all  probability  be  males. 

M.  Tegetmeier  tabulated  for  Mr.  Darwin  the  births 
of  a  large  number  of  greyhounds  that  had,  during  a 
period  of  twelve  years,  been  sent  to  the  Field  news- 
paper. 

"  The  recorded  births  have  been  6,878,  consisting 
of  3,605  males  and  3,273  females ;  that  is,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  110.1  males  to  100  females.  The  greatest 
fluctuations  occurred  in  1864,  when  the  proportion 
was  as  95.3  males,  and  in  1867,  as  116.3  males  to  100 
females."  3 

"  "With  respect  to  fowl,"  Mr.  Darwin  "  received 
only  one  account,  namely,  that  out  of  1,001  chickens 
of  a  highly-bred  stock  of  Cochins,  reared  during  eight 
years  by  Mr.  Stretch,  487  proved  males  and  514  fe- 
males ;  i.  e.,  as  94.7  to  100. 

"  In  regard  to  domestic  pigeons,  there  is  good  evi- 
dence that  the  males  are  produced  in  excess,  or  that 
their  lives  are  longer ;  for  these  birds  invariably  pair, 

1  "Descent  of  Man,"  vol.  L,  p.  294, 

2  Ibid. 


318  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

and  single  males,  as  Mr.  Tegetmeier  informs  me,  can 
always  be  purchased  cheaper  than  females."  * 

As  in  fowls  and  pigeons,  the  sexes  are  not  readily 
distinguished  at  an  early  age.  Any  excess  in  the 
death-rate  of  either  sex  would,  as  in  the  cases  already 
referred  to,  have  an  influence  on  the  results  obtained. 

Mr.  Darwin  has  also  collected  data  that  render  it 
highly  probable  that  the  males,  at  birth,  predominate 
among  birds,  fishes,  and  insects.* 

The  influence  of  wars,  famines,  and  epidemics, 
upon  the  birth-rate  of  communities  is  well  marked 
in  the  statistics  of  population;  but  the  direction  in 
which  the  influence  is  exerted  is  not  always  the  same, 
and  in  some  instances  is  entirely  unexpected.  In  the 
case  of  wars  and  of  severe  famines  the  birth-rate  is 
diminished;  while  in  famines  of  moderate  severity, 
and  in  epidemics,  the  birth-rate  is  frequently  increased. 

When  the  birth-rate  is  diminished  by  war  or  fam- 
ine for  a  given  period,  there  is  as  a  rule  a  decided  in- 
crease in  the  period  following  that  may  more  than 
compensate  for  the  previous  diminution. 

Doubleday,  in  his  "True  Law  of  Population," 
says :  "  There  are  numerous  instances  where  the  oc- 
currence of  misfortune  and  consequent  privations  have 
given  families  to  those  who  were  childless  in  their 
prosperity ;  and,  as  elucidating  the  same  law,  we  may 
adduce  another  fact,  well  known  to  medical  persons, 
which  is,  the  extraordinary  tendencies  to  propagation 
evinced  by  both  sexes  when  semi-convalescent,  after  en- 
feebling and  attenuating  epidemics,  such  as  fevers, 

1  "  Descent  of  Man,"  vol.  i.,  p.  29fr. 
a  Ibid.,  pp.  296-307. 


SEX.  319 

pestilences,  and  plagues,  and  the  consequent  extraor- 
dinary rapidity  with  which  population  recovers  it- 
self in  those  countries  where  the  plague,  the  marsh- 
fever,  or  famines,  which  cause  many  of  these  epidem- 
ics, have  made  havoc."  * 

These  influences  have  been  considered  in  the  chap- 
ter on  "  Fecundity,"  but  they  are  of  particular  inter- 
est among  the  causes  that  determine  the  proportion  of 
the  sexes. 

Dr.  H.  B.  Baker  has  shown  that  the  influence  of 
the  War  of  the  Eevolution  and  the  War  of  1812  are 
indicated  in  the  statistics  of  Michigan  as  late  as  1870, 
as  well  as  the  influence  of  the  war  of  1861-'65,a  and  it 
appears  that  the  diminished  birth-rate  during  these 
wars  was  accompanied  by  an  increased  proportion  of 
male  births. 

It  has  been  stated  that  "  certain  observations  made 
by  Yillerme,  of  Paris,  and  by  Dr.  Emerson,  of  Phila- 
delphia, go  to  show  that  certain  causes,  as  great  heat 
of  summer,  overworking  and  underfeeding,  prevalence 
of  epidemics,  illegitimacy,  in  short,  whatever  tends  to 
depress  the  physical  and  moral  powers,  tends  also  to 
diminish  fecundity,  and  at  the  same  time  to  reduce 
the  excess  of  male  births ;  that  these  causes  may  oper- 
ate so  as  even  to  produce  an  excess  of  females." " 

Dr.  John  Stockton-Hough  has  also  made  the  state- 
ment that,  "  under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  greater 

1  Walford's  "Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  189. 

2  "Statistics  of  Michigan,"  1870,  pp.  xix.-xxi.     (See  also  "  United 
States  Census,"  Mortality,  1860,  p.  520.) 

8  "Registration  Report  of  Kentucky,"  1853,  p.  119;  as  quoted  in 
Michigan  "Fourth  Registration  Report,"  1870,  p.  79. 


320  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

the  proportion  of  males  in  births  the  greater  the  fe- 
cundity." ' 

These  generalizations  appear  to  hare  been  made 
without  sufficient  evidence,  and  the  statistics  relied 
upon  in  support  of  them  are  susceptible,  in  many  in- 
stances, of  a  different  interpretation. 

We  have  already  seen  that  depressing  influences, 
in  many  cases,  are  favorable  to  fecundity;  and  the 
statistics  collected  by  Dr.  H.  B.  Baker  seem  to  show 
that  "causes  tending  to  increase  the  birth-rate  tend 
also  to  increase  the  proportion  of  female  offspring, 
this  being  equivalent  to  decreasing  the  proportion  of 
males."  2 

Dr.  Emerson,  in  the  paper  referred  to,  has  appar- 
ently shown  that  the  cholera  in  1832,  in  Philadelphia 
and  in  Paris,  diminished  the  proportion  of  male  births 
for  the  year  1833,  and  that  this  excess  is  most  marked 
in  the  period  of  the  year  nine  months  after  its  "  most 
fatal  ravages."  * 

A  reexamination  of  the  statistics  used  by  Dr. 
Emerson  has  been  made  by  Dr.  Baker,  who  shows 
that  the  birth-rate  was  also  increased  in  this  epidemic ; 
and  he  adds  evidence  of  a  similar  character  from  the 
Registrar-General's  report,  in  regard  to  the  influence 
of  cholera  in  England  in  1854.4 

The  statistics  of  1,427,719  births  in  New  York 
City,  Philadelphia,  Providence,  Yermont,  Massachu- 

1  Philadelphia  Medical  Times,  December,  1873,  p.  193. 

2  Michigan  "Fourth  Registration  Report,"  1870,  p.  78;  Michigan 
"  Fifth  Registration  Report,"  1871,  p.  103. 

8  American  Journal  of  the  Medical  Society,  July,  1848,  pp.  78-85. 
4  Michigan  "Fifth  Registration  Report,"  1871,  pp.  96-99. 


SEX.  321 

setts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  and  Michigan,  dur- 
ing a  series  of  years,  as  compiled  by  Dr.  Baker,  show 
that  in  133  cases,  of  from  1,300  to  38,259  births  ac- 
cording to  year  and  locality,  an  increase  in  the  birth- 
rate gave  a  decreased  proportion  of  males,  or  a  de- 
crease in  the  birth-rate  gave  an  increase  of  males; 
while  48  cases,  on  the  same  basis,  were  exceptional 
and  7  doubtful.1 

Statistics  of  the  births  for  1862-'65  inclusive,  in 
the  same  localities,  show  an  increase  of  males,  with  a 
decreased  birth-rate,  resulting  from  the  war,  with  the 
single  exception  of  Connecticut,  where  there  was  a 
slight  decrease  in  male  births  and  an  increased  birth- 
rate.2 

In  these  cases,  it  should  be  observed,  the  increase 
or  decrease  in  the  proportion  of  males  seems  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  a  decrease  or  increase  of  the  birth-rate  when 
compared  with  the  average  for  the  locality ;  that  is  to 
say,  the  causes  that  apparently  diminish  or  increase 
the  birth-rate  in  a  given  locality  seem  likewise  to  in- 
crease or  diminish  the  proportion  of  males  in  that 
locality. 

It  does  not,  however,  follow  from  this  that,  in 
cases  of  remarkable  fecundity,  either  of  individuals  or 
communities,  there  should  be  an  excessive  predomi- 
nance of  females,  or  that  an  unusual  excess  in  the  pro- 
portion of  males  is  to  be  found  in  cases  in  which  there 
is  a  lack  of  fecundity,  as  the  conditions  involved  in 
such  cases  may  be  quite  different  from  those  that  pro- 


1  Michigan  "Fifth  Registration  Report,"  1871,  pp.  104-110. 

2  Ibid.,  1871,  p.  111. 


322  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

duce  variations  in  the  birth-rate,  or  in  the  proportions 
of  the  sexes  in  a  given  locality. 

The  data  for  a  satisfactory  discussion  of  the  rela- 
tions of  fecundity,  in  itself  considered,  to  the  deter- 
mination of  sex,  are  unfortunately  wanting.1 

As  to  the  proportions  of  the  sexes  in  plural 
births,  the  statistics  are  quite  limited.  In  1852,  ac- 
cording to  the  registrar-general's  report,  "in  6,036 
cases  women  bore  two  living  children  at  a  birth.  In 
3,587  of  the  above  cases  the  children  were  of  the 

1  According  to  Walford  ("Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  193), 
the  women  of  England,  taken  collectively,  are  more  prolific  than  the 
women  of  Scotland;  1,000  English  women,  aged  from  fifteen  to  fifty- 
five,  bearing  annually  123  registered  children,  and  1,000  Scotch  women 
bearing  120  children,  the  proportion  of  males  to  females  being,  ac- 
cording to  the  statistics  already  given,  104.7  to  100  for  the  former, 
and  105.3  to  100  for  the  latter. 

In  the  vital  statistics  of  seventeen  European  countries,  compiled  by 
the  Belgian  Government  in  1866,  under  the  supervision  of  M.  Quetelet, 
it  is  stated  that  "  the  most  remarkable  rate  of  fecundity  is  shown  in 
Russia,  and  especially  in  the  single  year  under  observation  (1868), 
when  it  was  nearly  twice  as  high  as  reported  in  France  "  (Statistical 
Journal,  vol.  xxxi.,  p.  146 ;  quoted  in  "  Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  L, 
p.  313). 

The  proportion  of  males  to  100  females  in  Russia  for  the  year  men- 
tioned was  104.9,  while  the  births  in  France  for  the  same  year  are  not 
given.  The  details  of  such  fragmentary  statistics  are  not  sufficient  to 
admit  of  any  generalizations  based  upon  them. 

Statistics  in  Michigan  show  that  "the  birth-rate  is  apparently 
smaller  among  persons  of  African  descent  and  larger  among  Indians 
than  among  the  white  inhabitants  of  this  State.  It  also  shows,  what 
has  been  noticed  in  the  two  preceding  "Reports,"  that  in  the  case 
where  the  birth-rate  is  largest  there  is  the  largest  proportion  of  female 
children,  and  where  the  birth-rate  is  smallest  there  is  the  smallest  pro- 
portion of  female  children "  (Michigan  "  Sixth  Registration  Report," 
1872,  p.  33). 


SEX.  323 

same  sex,  and  in  the  remaining  2,159  only,  of  differ- 
ent sexes."  * 

Of  457  cases  of  twins,  collected  by  Churchill,  both 
children  were  males  in  131  cases,  both  females  in  146 
cases,  and  one  male  and  one  female  in  179  cases.2 

Of  56  cases  of  triplets,  there  were  3  boys  in  18 
cases,  3  girls  in  14  cases,  2  boys  and  1  girl  in  11  cases, 
1  boy  and  2  girls  in  9  cases,  and  in  4  cases  the  sex  is 
not  stated.8 

Thirteen  cases  are  reported  of  4  children  at  one 
birth,  of  which  there  were  4  boys  in  3  cases,  4  girls 
in  2  cases,  3  boys  and  1  girl  in  3  cases,  2  boys  and  2 
girls  in  1  case,  1  boy  and  3  girls  in  2  cases,  and  in  two 
cases  the  sex  is  not  stated.4 

In  Michigan  there  were  389  cases  of  twins  reported 
in  1870,  and  298  cases  in  1871,  the  proportion  of  males 
to  100  females  being  107.14  in  1870,  and  112.85  in 
1871.6 

It  has  generally  been  supposed  that  the  production 
of  twins  was  an  indication  of  unusual  f  ecundity ;  but 
Dr.  Duncan,  who  is  a  high  authority  on  this  subject, 
remarks  that  "  the  variation  of  the  frequency  of  twin- 
births  in  different  countries  is  so  great  as  to  remove 
all  probability  from  the  notion  or  belief  that  the 
greater  or  less  frequency  of  twins  shows  greater  or 
less  general  fertility."  ° 

1  "Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  L,  p.  318. 

a  "  Theory  and  Practice  of  Midwifery,"  p.  402. 

3  "Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol  i.,  p.  318  ;  vol.  in.,  p.  200. 

4  Ibid.,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  200,  201. 

6  Michigan  "Fifth  Registration  Report,"  1871,  pp.  93,  94. 
6  Duncan  on  "  Fecundity ; "  quoted  in  "  Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol. 
iii.,  p.  195. 


324  PKINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

It  is  frequently  observed  that  in  the  offspring  of 
individuals  or  families  there  are  many  more  of  one  sex 
than  of  the  other,  so  that  the  determination  of  the 
sex  seems  to  depend  upon  some  undefined  peculiarity 
of  the  parent. 

Mr.  Knight,  from  the  examination  of  a  limited 
number  of  facts  of  this  kind,  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  "the  female  parent  gives  the  sex  to  the  off- 
spring." And  he  says,  "I  have  proved  repeatedly 
that,  by  dividing  a  herd  of  thirty  cows  into  three 
equal  parts,  I  could  calculate  with  confidence  upon  a 
larger  majority  of  females  from  one  part,  of  males 
from  another,  and  upon  nearly  an  equal  number  of 
males  and  females  from  the  remainder."  l 

Sir  John  Sinclair  states  that  "  two  cows  produced 
fourteen  females  each  in  fifteen  years,  though  the  bull 
was  changed  every  year.  It  is  singular  that,  when 
they  produced  a  bull-calf,  it  was  in  the  same  year."  2 

Mr.  Sherman  reports  a  predominance  of  heifers  in 
the  get  of  a  Jersey  bull,  the  cows  brought  to  him 
being  selected  as  heifer-breeders.  He  also  states  that 
he  has  "  a  mare  that  has  borne  ten  or  eleven  colts,  but 
three  of  which  were  males.  They  were  sired  by  five 
or  six  stallions."  8 

Mr.  "Wright,  Yeldersley  House,  says  that  "  one  of 
his  Arab  mares,  though  put  seven  times  to  different 
horses,  produced  seven  fillies."  * 

1  "Philosophical  Transactions,"  1809;  quoted  in  Walker  on  "In- 
termarriage,"  p.  228. 

*  "  Code  of  Agriculture,"  p.  89. 

3  Country  Gentleman,  1877,  p.  366. 

4  "Descent  of  Man,"  vol.  i.,  p.  294. 


SEX.  325 

The  record  of  nine  cows,  reported  by  Dr.  Sturte- 
vant,  "  shows  one  set  of  three  producing  one  bull  and 
ten  heifer  calves ;  another  set  produced  nine  bull  and 
two  heifer  calves;  while  the  remaining  three  pro- 
duced seven  bull  and  six  heifer  calves."  : 

Again,  the  predominance  of  one  sex  may  be  seen 
in  the  produce  of  an  entire  herd  for  a  single  year, 
which  may,  however,  be  the  result  of  peculiarities  of 
the  season  or  other  unobserved  conditions. 

The  Kev.  W.  D.  Fox  informed  Mr.  Darwin  that, 
"  in  1867,  out  of  thirty-four  calves  born  on  a  farm  in 
Derbyshire,  only  one  was  a  bull."  a 

"  At  the  sale  of  Mr.  Atkins's  Short-Horn  herd  at 
Milcote,  in  1868,  it  was  stated,  to  account  for  the  large 
number  of  bull-calves,  that  twenty-three  of  the  twenty- 
five  cows,  the  last  season,  had  produced  bulls."  3 

"  Burdach  states  that  those  women  who  are  most 
fruitful  bear  many  more  boys  than  girls,  as  in  the 
following  examples : " 

Boys.         Girls. 

First  woman  Lore         .  /.  .          .  .26  6 

Second     "        "    in  first  marriage  .            27  3 

"         "        "     "  second     "  .      14  0 

Third       "        "        ••  • ./'.      v.^  .            38  15 4 

These  cases  should,  however,  be  classed  under  the 
head  of  idiosyncrasy  of  the  parents,  as  there  is  not 
sufficient  evidence  to  warrant  the  belief  that  the  pre- 
dominance of  males  is  the  result  of  extraordinary 
fecundity. 

1  Scientific  Farmer,  1876,  p.  193. 

8  "Descent  of  Man,"  vol.  i.,  p.  295. 

8  Country  Gentleman,  September,  1868,  p.  190. 

4  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  479. 


326  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

From  the  frequency  of  the  cases  in  which  there  is 
a  greater  number  of  one  sex  than  of  the  other,  in  the 
produce  of  particular  females,  it  has  been  assumed 
that  the  female  parent  had  a  greater  influence  in  de- 
termining sex  than  the  male. 

There  are,  however,  several  reasons  why  such  a 
generalization  should  not  be  accepted  as  the  expres- 
sion of  a  general  law.  Among  domestic  animals,  al- 
though the  male  practically  constitutes  one-half  of 
the  breeding-stock  of  a  flock  or  herd,  the  females  are 
by  far  the  most  numerous ;  and  it  would  follow  from 
this  superiority  of  numbers  that  the  instances  of  sex 
determined  by  females  would  be  observed  in  greater 
numbers  than  the  instances  of  sex  determined  by 
males,  if  the  power  of  influencing  sex  were  the  same 
in  both  males  and  females. 

Moreover,  as  the  male  is  usually  coupled  with  a 
number  of  females,  any  influence  he  might  have  in 
determining  the  sex  of  his  offspring  would  not  be  so 
readily  noticed  as  a  similar  influence  on  the  part  of 
the  female.  Again,  if  a  particular  male  has  a  decided 
tendency  to  produce  offspring  of  one  sex,  it  is  prob- 
able that  among  the  many  females  with  which  he  is 
coupled  there  might  be  found  a  number  that  have  a 
tendency  to  produce  offspring  of  the  same  sex. 

The  sex  of  the  offspring  of  these  females  would, 
therefore,  be  determined  by  the  combined  influence 
of  both  parents  acting  in  the  same  direction. 

The  statistics  of  such  cases,  unless  great  care  is  taken 
to  obtain  all  the  facts  bearing  upon  them,  might  be 
readily  interpreted  as  evidence  that  the  female  parent 
had  the  greatest  influence  upon  the  sex  of  the  offspring. 


SEX.  327 

If  there  is  a  great  predominance  of  one  sex  in  the 
offspring  of  a  female  by  the  same  male  for  a  series  of 
years,  the  result  may  have  been  produced  through  the 
influence  of  either  parent,  or  by  the  combined  influ- 
ence of  both ;  but  it  cannot,  without  other  evidence, 
be  attributed  to  the  influence  of  the  female  alone. 

There  are  many  well-authenticated  cases  which 
show  that  the  female  has  not  the  exclusive  preroga- 
tive of  determining  sex. 

"  In  the  '  Philosophical  Transactions '  for  the  year 
1787,  mention  is  made  of  a  gentleman  who  was  the 
youngest  of  forty  sons,  all  produced  in  succession 
from  three  different  wives  by  one  father,  in  Ireland." l 

One  of  my  Ayrshire  cows  produced  one  bull  and 
five  heifer  calves,  the  bull  being  her  first  calf.  Four 
of  her  daughters  have  produced  fourteen  bull-calves 
and  one  heifer — one  of  the  daughters  had  seven  bull- 
calves.  These  bull-calves,  so  far  as  I  can  trace  them, 
differ  greatly  in  the  proportions  of  the  sexes  in  their 
offspring,  some  of  them  getting  a  large  proportion 
of  females,  in  which  they  resemble  their  grandam, 
while  others  get  a  large  proportion  of  males,  in  which 
they  resemble  their  dams. 

These  cases,  although  not  sufficient  to  establish 
any  law  regulating  the  propagation  of  the  sexes,  seem 
to  indicate  that  the  sex  may,  perhaps,  have  been  deter- 
mined by  heredity,  the  line  of  descent  being  repre- 
sented by  an  alternation  of  generations  in  some  cases, 
and  directly  in  others. 

"A  tomb  at  Ely,  Cambridgeshire,  England,  has 

1  Morton's  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture,"  vol.  i.,  p.  337 ;  Walker  on 
"  Intermarriage,"  p.  229. 


328  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

the  following  inscription  :  t  Sacred  to  the  memory  of 
Eichard  Worster,  who  died  May  11, 1856,  aged  seven- 
ty-three years.  Also  to  the  memory  of  twenty-two 
sons  and  five  daughters.  .  .  . 

"  The  administrators  of  the  estate  of  Heber  C. 
Kimball,  late  Brigham  Young's  first  counselor,  filed 
in  1869,  at  Salt  Lake  City,  a  return  of  distributive 
shares,  subject  to  the  revenue  tax,  showing  forty-one 
children — thirty  sons  and  eleven  daughters."  ' 

A  case  is  reported  of  a  bull,  eighteen  months  old, 
that  got  the  first  season  ten  heifers  and  two  bulls.9 

Another  case  is  reported  of  a  boar  that  "begat 
about  seventy  per  cent,  of  males."  And  of  another 
on  the  same  farm  that  "  got  but  three  males  out  of 
twenty-seven  pigs." ' 

Mr.  Elaine  says :  "  Some  dogs,  some  stallions,  and 
some  bulls,  are  remarked  for  getting  a  greater  number 
of  males  than  females ;  while  others  are  the  parents 
of  more  females  than  males." 4 

There  are  cases  which  seem  to  indicate  that  certain 
families  may  have  a  tendency  to  produce  more  of  one 
sex  than  the  other. 

Sir  Anthony  Carlisle  says,  "  I  am  intimate  with  a 
family  in  which  the  father  and  mother  had  only  two 
children,  a  son  and  a  daughter,  who  each  married  into 
families  not  related  to  either  party,  and  have  had 
fifteen  daughters  without  one  son,  viz.,  eight  by  the 
son  and  seven  by  the  daughter." e 

1  Watford's  "  Insurance  Cyclopaedia,"  vol.  iii.,  p.  167. 
a  Country  Gentleman,  March,  1870,  p.  201. 

3  National  Live-Stock  Journal,  1877,  p.  101. 

4  Walker  on  "  Intermarriage,"  p.  229.  6  Ibid.,  p.  229. 


SEX.  329 

The  predominance  of  one  sex  in  the  offspring  of 
particular  animals  has  been  attributed  to  "prepo- 
tency." * 

This  use  of  a  term  that  has  a  definite  meaning  in 
regard  to  the  transmission  of  qualities  is  objectionable, 
as  it  is  liable  to  mislead  those  who  are  not  aware  of 
the  special  signification  implied  in  this  connection. 
An  animal  that  is  prepotent  has  a  stronger  influence 
than  its  mate  in  the  transmission  of  its  characters  to 
their  offspring.  If  we  say  that  sex  is  influenced  by 
prepotency,  it  might  be  inferred  that  the  parent  con- 
trolling the  dominant  characters  of  the  offspring  had 
also  a  predominant  influence  in  determining  sex ;  but 
this  is  not  the  case,  as  many  instances  have  come  un- 
der my  observation  in  which  the  general  characters 
of  a  pure-bred  male  were  uniformly  stamped  upon  his 
offspring  out  of  native  and  grade  animals ;  while  some 
of  the  females  would  produce  more  males  than  fe- 
males, and  others  would  produce  more  females  than 
males.  The  influence  of  individuals  upon  sex  would, 
therefore,  seem  to  depend  on  something  that  is  not 
included  in  the  ordinary  use  of  the  term  prepotency. 

There  are  several  other  theories  in  regard  to  the 
causes  which  determine  sex  that  remain  to  be  noticed ; 
but  the  material  at  command  will  not  admit  of  an  ex- 
tended discussion  of  their  merits. 

"  Sir  Everard  Home  believed  the  ovum  or  germ 
previous  to  impregnation  to  be  of  no  sex,  but  so 
formed  as  to  be  equally  fitted  to  become  either  male 
or  female,  and  that  it  is  the  process  of  impregnation 
which  marks  the  sex  and  forms  the  generative  organs ; 

1  Scientific  Fm-mer,  1876,  p.  193. 
1 5 


330  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BBEEDING. 

that  before  the  fourth  month  the  sex  cannot  be  said 
to  be  confirmed,  and  that  it  will  prove  male  or  female 
as  the  tendency  to  the  paternal  or  maternal  type  may 
predominate."  ' 

It  should  be  remarked  in  this  connection  that  the 
testicles  and  the  ovaries  are  formed  from  the  same 
embryonic  structure,  and  at  an  early  stage  of  develop- 
ment it  is  impossible  to  determine  which  form  of  the 
generative  apparatus  is  to  be  produced.  According 
to  this  theory,  the  male  offspring  should  resemble  the 
father,  and  the  female  offspring  should  resemble  the 
mother ;  but  we  have  seen  that  the  transmission  of 
resemblance  is  frequently  from  the  father  to  the 
daughter,  or  from  the  mother  to  the  son ;  and  some 
physiologists  even  claim  that  this  is  a  law  of  heredity 
that  has  few  exceptions. 

Dr.  Flint  has  presented  a  provisional  theory  that 
does  not  differ  essentially  from  that  of  Sir  Everard 
Home.  He  says :  "  It  may  be  that  when  just  enough 
of  the  male  element  unites  with  the  ovum  to  secure 
fecundation,  or  when  it  might  be  said  that  the  female 
element  predominates,  the  foetus  is  a  female;  and, 
when  a  greater  number  of  spermatozoids  unite  with 
the  vitellus,  the  male  sex  is  determined. 

"  Such  an  idea,  however,  is  purely  theoretical ;  and 
the  question  of  the  determination  of  sex  presents  thus 
far  hardly  the  shadow  of  a  satisfactory  explanation."  ' 

Mr.  Wright's  directions  for  breeding  the  sexes  of 
chickens  at  will  is  apparently  based  upon  the  idea 

1  "Principles  of  Breeding,"  by  Goodale,  p.  89;  Morton's  "Cyclo- 
paedia of  Agriculture,"  vol.  i.,  p.  336. 

8  "Physiology  of  Man "—"  Generation,"  vol.  v.,  p.  346. 


SEX.          r  331 

suggested  by  Dr.  Flint,  that  the  degree  of  impregna- 
tion determines  the  sex. 

Mr.  Wright  says :  "1.  If  a  vigorous  cockerel  be 
mated  with  not  more  than  three  adult  hens,  the  cocks 
almost  always  largely  predominate  in  at  least  the  early 
broods ;  later  this  becomes  uncertain.  2.  If  an  adult 
cock  be  mated  with  not  more  than  three  pullets,  the 
result  is  very  uncertain,  the  one  sex  being  as  likely  to 
occur  as  the  other ;  but  usually  there  is  a  decided  pre- 
dominance on  one  side,  rather  than  equality.  3.  If 
an  adult  cock  be  mated  with  five  or  more  pullets,  the 
pullets  are  generally  in  excess;  and  what  cockerels 
there  are  will  be  most  numerous  in  the  earlier  eggs. 

oo 

4.  Young  birds  or  adult  birds  mated  together  are  very 
uncertain ;  but  the  fewer  hens,  and  the  more  vigorous 
the  stock,  the  greater  is  the  proportion  of  cockerels, 
which  are  always  more  numerous  in  the  earlier  eggs 
of  a  season  than  the  later."  1 

As  Mr.  Wright,  however,  admits  that  "  there  will 
be  numerous  and  startling  exceptions  " a  to  these  rules, 
they  can  hardly  be  accepted  as  the  expression  of  a 
general  law. 

The  theory  presented  by  Dr.  Flint  appears  to  be 
in  direct  conflict  with  apparently  well-authenticated 
facts  observed  among  insects.  In  a  hive  of  bees  may 
be  found  a  queen-bee  (a  perfect  female),  a  number  of 
drones  (males),  and  the  neuter  workers  (imperfect  fe- 
males), which  are  by  far  the  most  numerous.  It  is 
well  known,  as  first  shown  by  Dzierzon,  that  an  un- 
impregnated  queen  lays  eggs  that  produce  drones,  and 

1  "  The  Illustrated  Book  of  Poultry,"  p.  133. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  p.  45. 


332  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

that  the  workers,  although  incapable  of  impregnation, 
may  sometimes  lay  eggs  that  produce  drones.  Eggs 
producing  females  are,  however,  only  laid  by  the  queen, 
and  then  only  after  impregnation.1  It  appears  that 
all  unimpregnated  eggs  produce  males,  and  all  im- 
pregnated eggs  produce  females — i.  e.,  either  workers 
or  queens :  and  the  male  element  of  fertilization,  in 
the  case  of  bees,  would  seem,  therefore,  to  be  essential 
to  the  production  of  females  only. 

The  theory  that  sex  is  determined  by  the  activity 
of  the  nutritive  processes  has  been  recently  advocated 
by  naturalists. 

Mrs.  Mary  Treat,  in  the  American  Naturalist, 
has  given  the  results  of  a  large  number  of  experi- 
ments with  butterflies,  showing  that,  if  the  larvae  are 
not  well  fed  before  going  into  the  chrysalis  state,  the 
perfect  insects  developed  from  them  are  males  ;  but, 
if  the  larvae  are  abundantly  supplied  with  food,  the 
perfect  insects  are  females.3 

In  a  paper  communicated  to  the  Philadelphia 
Academy,  Mr.  Gentry  details  a  series  of  experiments 
with  the  larvae  of  various  species  of  moths,  the  results 
of  which  agree  with  those  obtained  by  Mrs.  Treat 
with  butterflies.  Mr.  Gentry  arrives  at  the  following 
conclusions :  "  1.  That  males  are  the  invariable  result 
when  the  larvae  are  fed  on  diseased  or  innutritious 
food ;  2,  That  in  the  fall,  when  the  leaves  have  not 
their  usual  amount  of  sap,  males  are  generally  pro- 
duced ;  3.  That  more  males  are  produced  late  in  the 

1  "The  Dzierzon  Theory,"  by  Baron  Berlepsch,  pp.  13-36;  "Hive 
and  Honey-Bee,"  by  Langstroth,  pp.  40-45  ;  and  other  works  on  the  bee. 
8  Popular  Science  Monthly,  June,  1873,  p.  252. 


SEX.  333 

season  than  females ;  4.  That  the  sexes  in  early  life 
cannot  be  distinguished,  the  change  being  brought 
about  late  in  life  by  the  conditions  of  nutrition."  l 

Mr.  Thomas  Meehan  has  made  observations  which 
seem  to  show  that  "  sex  in  plants  is  the  result  of  the 
grade  of  nutrition,  the  highest  grades  of  nutrition  or 
vitality  producing  the  female  sex,  and  the  lower  grades 
the  male."  2 

These  changes  in  the  reproductive  organs  that  are 
produced  by  conditions  of  nutrition  appear  to  be 
analogous  to  those  that  determine  the  development  of 
the  reproductive  organs  of  the  queen-bee. 

If  a  queen  is  destroyed  or  removed  from  the  hive, 
"  the  bees  choose  two  or  three  from  among  the  neuter 
eggs  (producing  workers)  that  have  been  deposited 
in  their  appropriate  cells,  and  change  these  cells  (by 
breaking  down  others  around  them)  into  royal  cells, 
differing  considerably  in  form,  and  of  much  larger 
dimensions ;  and  the  larvae,  when  they  come  forth, 
are  supplied  with  'royal  jelly ','  an  aliment  of  a  very 
different  nature  from  the  '  bee-bread '  which  is  stored 
up  for  the  nourishment  of  the  workers,  being  of  a 
pungent,  stimulating  character.  After  going  through 
its  transformations,  the  grub  thus  treated  comes  forth 
a  perfect  queen,  differing  from  the  '  neuter,'  into  which 
it  would  otherwise  have  changed,  not  only  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  generative  apparatus,  but  also  in  the 
form  of  the  body,  the  proportionate  length  of  the 
wings,  the  shape  of  the  tongue,  jaws,  and  sting,  the 
absence  of  the  hollows  on  the  thighs  in  which  the 

1  Popular  Science  Monthly,  April,  1874,  p.  762. 
9  Ibid.,  p.  761. 


334  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

pollen  is  carried,  and  the  loss  of  the  power  to  secrete 
wax.  Thus,  in  acquiring  the  attributes  peculiar  to 
the  perfect  reproductive  female,  the  insect  loses  those 
which  distinguish  the  working  population  of  the  hive  ; 
and,  of  this  departure  from  its  usual  mode  of  develop- 
ment, the  difference  in  the  food  with  which  it  is  sup- 
plied appears  to  be  the  only  essential  condition."  l 

In  the  development  of  a  queen  from  a  worker 
larva,  it  does  not  appear  to  be  necessary  that  the 
changed  conditions,  as  to  form  of  cell  and  nutriment, 
should  be  made  at  the  earliest  period  of  growth. 
Dzierzon  says :  "  I  have  noticed  that  worker  larvae,  so 
far  advanced  that  they  nearly  fill  their  cells,  will  still 
be  developed  as  perfect  queens,  if,  before  capping, 
the  cell  be  somewhat  enlarged  and  widened,  and  the 
larvae  supplied  with  the  appropriate  pabulum."  Baron 
Berlepsch  adds,  "  Incredible  as  this  at  first  seemed,  I 
have  found  it,  nevertheless,  true."  2 

It  is  possible  that  the  influence  of  heat  and  light 
upon  the  sex  of  plants,  observed  by  Mr.  Knight,  may  be 
owing  to  changes  produced  in  the  nutrition  of  the  plant.8 

Mr.  Knight  says :  "  I  can  at  any  time  succeed  in 
causing  several  kinds  of  monoecious  plants  to  produce 
solely  male  or  solely  female  blossoms.  If  heat  be,  com- 
paratively with  the  quantity  of  light  which  the  plant  re- 
ceives, excessive,  male  flowers  only  appear ;  but,  if  light 
be  in  excess,  female  flowers  alone  will  be  produced." 4 

1  Carpenter's  "  Comparative  Physiology,"  p.  163. 

2  "  The  Dzierzon  Theory,"  by  Baron  Berlepsch,  p.  45. 

3  "  Comparative  Physiology,"  p.  618. 

4  "  Physiological  and  Horticultural  Papers,"  p.  358 ;  quoted  in  Sci- 
entific Farmer,  1876,  p.  181. 


SEX.  335 

The  relations  of  the  function  of  nutrition  to  that 
of  reproduction  may  perhaps  explain  some  of  the  cases 
that  have  been  cited  as  evidence  in  favor  of  other 
theories ;  and  it  may  be  that  the  determination  of  sex 
depends  upon  a  number  of  conditions  that  are  all  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  function  of  nutrition. 

Another  theory  has  been  recently  presented  by  Mr. 
John  R.  Stuy  vesant,  of  Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  that 
is  evidently  based  upon  two  assumptions,  viz. :  first, 
that  the  sex  of  the  offspring  depends  entirely  upon 
the  female ;  and,  second,  that  every  alternate  egg  is  of 
the  same  sex.  The  cases  given  above  are  sufficient  to 
show  that  these  assumptions  are  without  foundation, 
while  the  limited  number  of  cases  that  have  been  pre- 
sented as  evidence  of  the  value  of  the  system  cannot 
be  accepted  as  conclusive.  Mr.  Stuyvesant  says : 
"  My  plan  is  simply  this  :  if  a  cow  has  produced  for 
her  last  calf  a  heifer,  I  do  not  allow  her  to  be  served 
the  first  time  she  comes  in  season,  but  let  her  run 
over  until  the  second  time,  when  she  is  served  in  the 
first  part  of  her  heat,  and  is  immediately  shut  up  by 
herself  until  it  passes  over.  Should  she  not  catch  this 
time,  I  let  her  run  over  heat  number  three  and  serve 
her  in  heat  number  four,  and  so  on  until  she  finally 
does  catch. 

"  If  a  cow  has  last  produced  a  bull-calf,  then,  in 
this  case,  I  have  her  served  the  very  first  time  she 
comes  around  after  calving,  and  shut  her  up  by  her- 
self as  in  the'  preceding  case.  Should  she  not  catch 
by  this  service,  I  ]et  her  run  over  the  next,  or  season 
number  two,  and  serve  her  the  next,  or  season  number 
three,  etc.,  until  she  catches.  My  reasons  for  so  doing 


336  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BKEEDING. 

are  just  these  :  I  take  for  granted  that  every  alternate 
egg  or  ovum  presented  for  impregnation  is  a  male. 
Consequently,  if  a  cow  has  a  bull-calf,  the  next  egg  in 
her  rotation  must  be  a  female,  and,  if  impregnated 
when  presented,  the  produce  will  be  a  female,  etc." 1 

It  will  be  difficult  to  reconcile  the  hypothesis 
presented  by  Mr.  Stuyvesant  with  the  cases  in  which 
the  sex  of  the  offspring  is  apparently  determined  by 
the  male  parent,  the  proportions  of  the  sexes  observed 
in  plural  births,  or  with  the  observed  influence  of 
nutrition  upon  sex  in  insects,  recorded  by  Mrs.  Treat 
and  Mr.  Gentry. 

In  the  last-mentioned  cases  the  sex  was  not  deter- 
mined until  the  embryo  had  reached  an  advanced 
stage  of  development,  and  the  eggs  could  not,  there- 
fore, have  been  endowed  with  sexuality ;  and  we  have 
no  physiological  reasons  for  the  belief  that  the  ovum 
of  the  higher  animals  presents  an  exception,  in  this 
respect,  to  the  general  law  that  governs  the  function 
of  reproduction. 

1  Country  Gentleman,  18Y7,  p.  415. 


CHAPTEK  XY. 

PEDIGREE. 

A  PEDIGREE  is  a  record  or  statement  of  the  ances- 
tors of  an  animal,  that  serves  as  a  guide  in  tracing 
inherited  characters. 

In  itself  considered  it  is  not  necessarily  an  evi- 
dence of  purity  of  blood,  as  animals  of  mixed  blood 
may  have  a  recorded  pedigree  as  well  as  those  that 
are  purely  bred. 

The  first  records  of  animals  belonging  to  the  dif- 
ferent breeds  are  to  some  extent  conventional,  and 
the  details  of  the  lineage  are  not  always  given  with 
the  accuracy  that  is  required  in  recording  their  de- 
scendants. 

When  animals  in  a  particular  locality  have  certain 
general  characteristics  which  they  transmit  with  uni- 
formity to  their  offspring,  they  are  recognized  as  a 
distinct  breed.  The  descendants  of  these  animals 
may  be  bred  for  an  indefinite  period  without  any 
published  record  of  their  ancestry,  until  the  impor- 
tance of  the  breed  and  its  wider  diffusion  render  it 
desirable  that  a  systematic  record  be  made,  that  will 
define  its  limits  and  enable  breeders  to  readily  trace 
the  various  lines  of  descent  that  connect  their  animals 
with  the  original  representatives  of  the  breed.  When 


338  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

sufficient  encouragement  is  given  to  insure  the  success 
of  the  enterprise,  an  individual,  or  an  association  of 
breeders,  may  undertake  the  publication  of  a  record, 
which  is  called  a  herd-book  or  stud-book. 

Any  animals  that  are  generally  acknowledged  to 
belong  to  the  particular  breed  are  admitted  to  this 
record,  although  their  owners  may  not  be  able  to  fur- 
nish a  detailed  statement  of  their  ancestral  history. 

Animals  that  have  been  the  means  of  establishing 
the  reputation  of  the  breed  by  their  superior  merit, 
will  be  found  on  the  record,  side  by  side,  not  only 
with  the  inferior  members  of  the  breed,  but  with 
those  of  questionable  purity  of  blood.  Many  animals 
may  trace  their  descent  from  herds  that  have  been 
noted  for  producing  the  best  representatives  of  the 
breed,  while  others  will  have  nothing  in  their  ances- 
tral history  to  recommend  them  aside  from  their  sup- 
posed purity  of  blood. 

As  the  original  records  include  animals  of  very 
unequal  merit,  their  descendants,  that  appear  in  the 
later  volumes  of  the  herd-books,  must  present  a  like 
diversity  in  their  qualities. 

From  these  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  ani- 
mals entitled  to  record,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  inher- 
ited peculiarities  of  an  individual,  aside  from  the 
general  characters  belonging  to  the  breed,  must  be 
determined  by  evidence  not  contained  in  the  herd 
books ;  and  that  the  pedigree,  as  recorded,  will  only 
serve  as  a  guide  to  the  study  of  inherited  characters, 
from  its  enumeration  of  the  individuals  comprised  in 
the  ancestry,  without  indicating  their  relative  rank  or 
value. 


PEDIGREE.  339 

The  value  of  any  pedigree  will  depend  upon  its 
authenticity,  completeness,  and  the  quality  or  charac- 
teristics of  the  animals  comprised  in  the  ancestry. 

The  authenticity  of  a  pedigree  is  to  be  determined 
by  the  same  rules  that  guide  us  in  deciding  upon  the 
truth  of  any  other  statement  or  record.  In  the  first 
place,  it  must  be  consistent  with  itself,  and  in  accord- 
ance with  the  known  facts  in  the  history  of  the  breed. 

The  reputation  of  the  breeder  for  integrity,  and 
the  care  with  which  he  keeps  a  record  of  the  breeding 
of  his  stock,  together  with  his  opportunities  for  ob- 
taining correct  information  in  regard  to  the  statements 
he  places  on  record,  must  all  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion. A  pedigree  made  from  memory  alone,  some 
time  after  the  occurrence  of  the  facts  recorded,  cannot 
be  so  satisfactory  as  one  based  on  records  made  at  the 
time. 

The  intentional  or  careless  omission  of  a  name  in 
copying  a  pedigree  is  a  frequent  source  of  error  that 
is  not  easily  detected  by  persons  who  are  not  familiar 
with  the  history  of  the  family  to  which  the  animal 
belongs. 

Under  the  head  of  completeness  it  is  important 
that  the  name  and  residence  of  the  breeder  and  the 
present  owner  be  given,  together  with  the  date  of 
birth,  the  color,  and  other  distinguishing  marks  that 
may  aid  in  identifying  the  animals  that  are  named  in 
the  record. 

Every  animal  mentioned  in  the  pedigree  should  be 
traced  through  every  line  of  descent  to  individuals  of 
acknowledged  purity  of  blood. 

A  defect  in  the  record,  or  the  evidence  of  a  cross 


34:0  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

of  impure  blood  several  generations  back,  may  appear 
to  be  of  but  little  consequence  from  the  very  small 
fraction  that  apparently  represents  the  proportion  of 
impure  blood  in  the  system. 

The  facts  of  atavism,  and  the  observed  influence 
of  a  cross  for  many  generations  afterward,  will,  how- 
ever, show  that  the  intensity  of  an  inherited  peculi- 
arity cannot  be  expressed  or  represented  in  mathe- 
matical terms. 

Fleischmann  states1  that  the  common  sheep  in 
Germany  grow  from  "  5,000  to  5,500  wool-hairs  "  to 
the  square  inch ;  while  the  pure-bred  merino  sheep 
that  are  used  in  improving  them  by  crossing  have 
from  "40,000  to  48,000  wool-hairs"  to  the  square 
inch.  The  cross-bred  sheep,  when  a  pure  merino  ram 
has  invariably  been-  used  on  one  side  of  the  ancestral 
line,  have  but  "  27,000  wool-hairs  "  to  the  square  inch 
"  in  the  twentieth  generation,"  which  is  about  a  mean 
of  the  numbers  observed  in  the  common  sheep  and 
the  merinos. 

If  the  "  blood  "  of  the  original  varieties  had  been 
transmitted  in  mathematical  proportions,  a  grade  or 
cross-bred  of  the  twentieth  generation  would  have  less 
than  one-millionth  part  of  the  "  blood "  of  the  com- 
mon sheep.  The  number  of  wool-hairs  to  the  square 
inch,  and  other  peculiarities  of  the  wool  in  such  cross- 
bred animals,  show  that  this  apparently  insignificant 
fraction  of  blood  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  fleece. 

The  completeness  of  the  ancestral  record,  and  the 
unquestionable  purity  of  blood  of  every  animal  in- 

1  "  Patent-Office  Report,"  1847,  pp.  269-271. 


PEDIGREE.  341 

eluded  in  it,  would  therefore  seem  to  be  a  matter  of 
real  importance. 

As  there  are  many  animals  of  the  same  name  re- 
corded in  the  herd-books,  the  recorded  number,  which 
becomes  a  part  of  the  name  itself,  must  be  given  in 
the  pedigree  as  the  only  means  of  identification. 

As  animals  may  be  descended  in  one  or  more  lines 
from  a  given  herd,  and  still  have  an  infusion  of  blood 
from  other  sources  that  may  be  objectionable,  a  pedi- 
gree should  not  end  in  a  general  clause  indicating 
descent  from  a  specified  herd  or  importation,  without 
giving  in  full  the  name  and  number  of  each  animal  in 
every  line  of  descent. 

A  pedigree  tracing  all  lines  of  descent  from  ani- 
mals bred  by  men  who  were  known  as  breeders  of 
pure-bred  animals  at  the  time  the  first  records  were 
made  must,  however,  be  accepted  as  complete,  as  all 
recorded  pedigrees  have  a  similar  basis. 

After  examining  a  pedigree  with  reference  to  its 
authenticity  and  completeness,  the  characteristics  of 
the  individuals  included  in  each  line  of  descent,  and 
of  the  families  which  they  represent,  should  be  care- 
fully considered. 

If  all  the  ancestors  of  an  animal  have  been  remark- 
able for  their  good  qualities,  and  their  conformity  to 
the  same  general  type  of  excellence,  and  for  their 
freedom  from  serious  defects,  its  inherited  peculiari- 
ties will  be  valued  not  only  for  the  merits  it  may  be 
expected  to  possess  as  an  individual,  but  for  the  cer- 
tainty with  which  the  dominant  characters  of  the 
family  will  be  transmitted  to  its  offspring.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  ancestors  present  great  variations  of 


342  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

form  and  quality,  with  the  frequent  occurrence  of 
defects  that  diminish  the  value  of  an  individual  for  a 
special  purpose,  the  dominant  characters  of  the  animal, 
as  determined  by  inheritance,  cannot  be  predicted 
with  any  certainty,  and  it  cannot  be  relied  on  to  trans- 
mit the  most  desirable  qualities  of  its  ancestors,  as 
dominant  characters,  to  its  offspring. 

The  great  difference  in  the  actual  value  of  animals, 
arising  from  their  inherited  qualities,  may  be  seen 
from  a  single  illustration : 

Two  persons,  A  and  B,  begin  to  breed  Short-Horns 
at  the  same  time,  by  making  a  selection  of  females 
from  the  same  herd,  so  that  the  value  and  quality  of 
the  animals  they  start  with  are  the  same. 

Mr.  A,  who  has  definite  ideas  of  the  form  and 
qualities  of  the  animals  he  proposes  to  breed,  makes  a 
careful  study  of  his  herd,  with  reference  to  the  selec- 
tion of  a  bull  that  will  correct  any  defects  he  may 
observe,  and,  at  the  same  time,  improve  it  in  one  or 
more  of  the  most  desirable  characters.  After  visiting 
a  number  of  herds,  and  making  a  considerable  expen- 
diture of  time  and  money,  he  finds  the  bull  that  will 
best  suit  his  purpose ;  but,  as  it  is  an  animal  of  ex- 
traordinary merit,  the  owner  does  not  propose  to  part 
with  it.  As  this  is  the  only  animal  Mr.  A  has  seen 
that  answers  all  the  requirements  of  his  standard  of 
excellence,  he  finally  secures  his  services  at  what  others 
might  consider  an  extravagant  price.  He  is  deter- 
mined to  establish  a  herd  of  the  highest  attainable 
excellence,  and  does  not  count  the  cost  in  carrying 
his  designs  into  effect. 

After  using  this  bull  in  the  herd  as  long  as  it 


PEDIGREE.  343 

seems  desirable,  another,  of  the  same  general  type 
and  qualities,  is  selected  with  the  same  care  and  judg- 
ment, and  regardless  of  expense,  the  only  considera- 
tion that  determines  his  choice  being  the  usefulness 
of  the  animal  in  the  improvement  of  the  herd.  When 
better  animals  of  the  desired  type  cannot  be  obtained 
elsewhere,  some  favorite  male  of  his  own  herd  is 
selected  to  perpetuate  the  valuable  qualities  already 
established. 

After  practising  this  system  of  selection  rigorously 
for  many  years,  the  herd  may  become  celebrated  for 
its  uniformity  and  excellence,  and  other  breeders  will 
find  it  for  their  interest  to  resort  to  it  for  males  to 
improve  their  own  stock,  that  has  not  been  so  care- 
fully bred. 

Mr.  B,  with  the  same  opportunities  for  improve- 
ment, has  no  definite  standard  of  excellence,  and  is, 
moreover,  unable  to  detect  the  defects  of  the  females 
he  has  selected  as  the  foundation  of  a  herd.  In  the 
selection  of  a  male  he  might  consider  purity  of  blood 
the  most  important,  and  perhaps  the  only,  considera- 
tion. As  he  does  not  realize  the  fact  that  the  male, 
in  effect,  constitutes  one-half  of  the  breeding  elements 
of  his  herd,  he  may,  perhaps,  think  he  cannot  afford 
to  buy  a  high-priced  bull,  the  purchase  already  made 
having  nearly  exhausted  his  supply  of  ready  money. 
A  neighbor  has  a  pure-bred  bull  he  does  not  wish  to 
use  any  longer,  which  he  offers  to  sell  at  one-half  the 
price  originally  paid  for  him. 

This  bull  may  have  all  the  defects  and  but  few  of 
the  good  qualities  of  the  females  already  purchased, 
yet  he  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  herd  simply  be- 


344  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

cause  he  can  be  bought  at  a  moderate  price.  Some  of 
his  calves  may  resemble  their  dams  in  their  best  points, 
while  in  many  of  them  the  defects  of  both  parents 
may  predominate. 

When  another  bull  is  needed  in  the  herd,  a  similar 
selection  is  made,  in  direct  violation  of  the  established 
rules  of  the  modern  system  of  breeding. 

The  effects  of  this  hap-hazard  system,  or,  rather, 
lack  of  system,  are  readily  recognized  in  the  great 
differences  in  form  and  quality  presented  by  individual 
animals,  and  the  low  average  excellence  of  the  herd. 

The  pedigree  of  an  animal  from  the  herd  of  Mr. 
A  would  not  only  represent  qualities  that  were  in 
themselves  valuable,  but  a  potency  in  the  hereditary 
transmission  of  these  qualities  that  would  be  highly 
valued  by  the  experienced  breeder. 

The  pedigree  of  an  animal  from  the  herd  of  Mr. 
B  would  not  add  to  its  value  for  the  purposes  of  the 
breeder,  as  its  inherited  tendencies,  as  shown  by  its 
ancestral  history,  would  be  such  as  it  would  not  be 
desirable  to  perpetuate. 

From  these  extreme  cases  it  must  be  seen  that  the 
value  of  an  animal  for  breeding  purposes  does  not 
depend  entirely  upon  its  form  and  apparent  qualities 
when  studied  as  an  individual,  but  also  upon  its  pedi- 
gree which  represents  the  sum  of  its  inherited  char- 
acteristics. 

In  breeding-stock,  individual  excellence  in  con- 
nection with  the  best  inherited  characters  is  of  course 
desirable  in  all  cases ;  but,  when  it  is  impossible  to 
secure  this  combination  of  qualities,  the  breeder  should 
not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  greatest  perfection 


PEDIGREE.  345 

in  the  individual  will  not  compensate  for  ancestral  de- 
fects that  have  been  frequently  repeated,  as  the  latter 
will  in  all  probability  have  a  predominant  influence 
upon  the  offspring. 

In  this  connection,  it  may  be  well  to  notice  what 
are  popularly  called  "  fancy  prices "  and  "  fancy 
points "  in  breeding.  Many  persons  who  are  not 
familiar  with  the  practice  of  the  best  breeders  seem 
to  think  that  almost  everything  relating  to  pure-bred 
stock  is  a  matter  of  fancy  only,  and  that  the  qualities 
of  real  value  for  the  practical  purposes  of  the  farm 
are  neglected. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  breeders  often  fail  to 
comprehend  the  relations  of  form  to  the  qualities  of 
intrinsic  value,  and  that  errors  in  judgment  in  the 
selection  of  breeding-stock  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

The  breeders  who  have  gained  a  world- wide  repu- 
tation in  the  improvement  of  the  different  breeds  have, 
however,  made  the  development  of  useful  qualities 
their  leading  or  sole  object.  The  animals  that  have 
been  sold  or  "  let "  at  extraordinary  prices  have  been 
members  of  families  that  were  noted  for  their  uni- 
form good  qualities,  and  for  their  prepotency  in  trans- 
mitting their  characteristics  when  coupled  with  ani- 
mals that  represent  the  average  excellence  of  the 
breed.  Their  real  merits  as  breeders  made  them 
"  popular,"  or  "  fashionable,"  and  the  high  prices  that 
they  have  commanded  have  been  largely  the  result  of 
competition  among  breeders  who  were  seeking  the 
best  means  of  improvement  in  their  flocks  and  herds. 

It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  in  many  in- 
stances the  prices  of  valuable  animals  have  been  en- 


34:6  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

hanced  by  mere  speculators,  who  knew  little  and  cared 
less  for  the  true  principles  of  breeding,  and  the  im- 
provement of  animals  for  their  useful  qualities. 

That  the  real  interests  of  those  who  are  engaged 
in  the  legitimate  business  of  breeding  have  been  in- 
jured by  the  speculative  buyers  of  favorite  families, 
no  one  familiar  with  the  history  of  our  improved 
breeds  will  deny. 

Even  breeders  of  ability,  who  might  gain  an  envi- 
able reputation,  and  a  satisfactory  pecuniary  reward, 
by  devoting  their  energies  to  the  development  of  the 
best  qualities  of  their  favorite  breed,  have  encouraged 
the  prevailing  mania  for  speculation  by  making  pur- 
chases of  animals  that  could  not  possibly  be  of  use  in 
the  improvement  of  their  herds,  and  putting  them  up 
at  auction  with  the  best  of  their  own  breeding  to  make 
an  attractive  sale. 

Notwithstanding  the  extravagant  prices  that  have 
been  paid,  under  the  stimulus  of  excitement,  for  ani- 
mals that  were  of  but  little  value  for  any  practical 
purpose,  persons  who  have  a  full  knowledge  of  the 
interests  involved  in  the  legitimate  business  of  breed- 
ing choice  stock  would  hardly  be  willing  to  set  a  limit 
to  the  prices  that  may  be  consistently  paid  or  refused 
for  animals  of  extraordinary  merit,  that  are  especially 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  a  carefully-bred  flock  or  herd. 

The  late  Edwin  Hammond  remarked  to  the  writer, 
after  refusing  what  appeared  to  be  an  extravagant 
price  for  his  ram  Gold  Drop,  that  he  could  not  afford 
to  sell  his  best  ram  at  any  price,  unless  he  should  de- 
cide to  give  up  the  business  of  sheep-breeding,  and 
sell  his  entire  flock. 


PEDIGREE.  347 

"With  the  true  spirit  of  a  successful  breeder,  who 
had  spent  many  years  of  systematic  effort  in  establish- 
ing a  flock  that  excelled  in  its  useful  qualities,  Mr. 
Hammond  placed  a  higher  value  upon  the  improve- 
ments he  expected  to  obtain  in  his  entire  flock  by  the 
use  of  this  ram  than  he  did  upon  the  money  he  could 
have  been  sold  for. 

The  breeder  who  can  be  tempted  by  high  prices 
to  part  with  his  best  animals  cannot  reasonably  expect 
to  succeed  in  establishing  a  flock  or  herd  of  remark- 
able excellence. 

Peculiarities  of  color  or  form,  that  do  not  repre- 
sent any  valuable  qualities,  may  be  properly  called 
"  fancy  points ; "  and  the  money  paid  for  them  by  the 
purchaser  may  be  considered  a  "  fancy  price,"  whether 
the  amount  is  small  or  large. 

The  solid  color  and  black  points  of  the  Jerseys, 
and  the  red  and  dark  roan  of  the  Short-Horns,  that 
are  so  fashionable  at  the  present  time  in  America,  are 
good  illustrations  of  mere  "  fancy  points,"  that  should 
not  be  taken  into  consideration  in  forming  a  consistent 
standard  of  excellence. 

The  prevailing  fashion  for  particular  colors,  with- 
out reference  to  the  qualities  connected  with  them, 
must  not  only  tend  to  retard  the  improvement  of  these 
breeds,  but  to  diminish  their  value  for  practical  pur- 
poses by  encouraging  the  selection  of  breeding-stock 
in  accordance  with  a  false  standard  of  excellence. 

The  wrinkles  on  merino  sheep  furnish  another  il- 
lustration of  fancy  points  that  are  not  only  useless  in 
themselves,  but  decidedly  injurious,  from  the  blend- 
ing of  different  styles  of  wool  in  the  fleece  that 


348  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

diminishes  its  value  for  the  purposes  of  the  manu- 
facturer. 

The  interests  of  the  breeder  of  fine-wooled  sheep 
will  always  be  best  promoted  by  the  production  of  a 
style  of  wool  that  is  adapted  to  some  special  purpose, 
and  that  will,  therefore,  command  the  highest  price 
in  the  market. 

A  peculiarity  that  is  characteristic  of  the  breed,  or 
of  a  family  of  extraordinary  excellence,  although  triv- 
ial in  itself,  would,  however,  be  of  real  value  as  an 
indication  of  the  inheritance  of  the  qualities  of  the 
breed  or  family,  and  could  not,  therefore,  be  consid- 
ered a  fancy  point. 

The  Southdowns  bred  by  Mr.  Webb,  which  were 
justly  celebrated  for  their  superior  qualities,  had  lighter- 
colored  faces  and  legs  than  other  families  of  the  breed, 
and  the  breeders  at  the  present  time  value  the  lighter 
shades  of  color  of  the  face  and  legs  as  representing 
one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Webb  blood. 

The  tan-colored  marks  on  the  ears  and  faces  of 
the  merino  sheep  were  highly  prized  by  the  early 
breeders  as  an  indication  of  the  "blood,"  and  they 
could  not,  strictly  speaking,  be  called  "  fancy  points," 
as  they  represented  inherited  tendencies  that  were  in 
themselves  valuable. 

For  convenience  and  exactness  of  expression  in 
discussing  the  lineage  of  animals,  and  in  recording 
pedigrees,  the  following  terms  are  in  use  among 
breeders : 

The  term  "thorough-bred,"  in  its  strict  significa- 
tion, is  used  to  designate  the  English  race-horse,  and  it 
has  been  generally  adopted  as  the  name  of  the  breed. 


PEDIGREE.  34.9 

In  America  the  term  "thorough-bred"  is  fre- 
quently applied  to  sheep  and  cattle ;  but,  as  there  are 
other  terms  in  use  to  express  the  same  idea  that  are 
quite  as  definite  and  concise,  without  being  open  to 
the  objection  of  ambiguity,  it  would  be  well  to  restrict 
it  to  its  original  use  as  the  name  of  a  distinct  breed 
of  horses. 

"Pure-bred,"  "full-blood,"  and  "thorough-bred," 
were  defined  by  the  American  Association  of  Short- 
Horn  Breeders  as  synonymous  terms,  and  to  indicate 
"  animals  of  a  distinct  and  well-defined  breed,  with- 
out any  admixture  of  other  blood."  1 

The  following  definitions  were  also  adopted  by  the 
association : 

" '  Cross-bred ' — animals  produced  by  breeding  to- 
gether distinct  breeds. 

"  '  Grades ' — the  produce  of  a  cross  between  a '  pure- 
bred '  and  a  i  native.' 

" t  High-grade ' — an  animal  of  mixed  blood,  in  which 
the  blood  of  a  pure  breed  largely  predominates." 

Close-breeding  is  the  coupling  of  animals  that  are 
closely  related;  while  "in-and-in  breeding"  implies 
the  closest  possible  relationship  in  the  animals  bred 
together. 

High-breeding  is  sometimes  used  as  synonymous 
with  close-breeding,  but  it  properly  signifies  a  rigor- 
ous selection  of  breeding-stock  with  reference  to  a 
definite  standard,  and  within  the  limits  of  a  particular 
family. 

In  what  is  popularly  called  "  breeding-in-the-line," 

1  "  Proceedings  of  American  Association  of  Breeders  of  Short- 
Horns,"  Indianapolis,  1872,  p.  21. 


350  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

the  selection  of  males  is  limited  to  a  particular  family, 
without  reference  to  the  quality  or  uniformity  of  the 
animals  selected.  Strictly  speaking,  however,  it  means 
the  selection  of  males  of  a  common  type  and  belong- 
ing to  the  same  family. 

In  denning  the  parentage  of  animals,  the  terms 
"  out  of  "  and  "  got  by,"  or,  in  the  abbreviated  form, 
"  by,"  are  made  use  of,  the  former  referring  to  the 
dam  and  the  latter  to  the  sire ;  for  example,  Favorite 
(252)  was  got  by  Bolingbroke  (86),  out  of  Phoenix  by 
Foljambe  (263) :  that  is  to  say,  Bolingbroke  (86)  was 
the  sire  of  Favorite  (252),  and  Phoenix  by  Foljambe 
(263)  was  the  dam  of  Favorite  (252) ;  and  the  sire  of 
Phoenix  was  Foljambe  (263).  The  term  "  out  of  "  is 
sometimes  improperly  used  in  referring  to  the  sire ;  it 
should,  however,  for  the  purpose  of  exactness,  be  used 
only  when  referring  to  the  dam ;  and  "  got  by "  or 
"  by  "  should  be  as  strictly  limited  to  a  reference  to 
the  sire. 

In  Short-Horn  and  Hereford  pedigrees  the  bulls 
only  have  a  number,  while  the  females  are  designated 
by  the  name  of  their  sire  following  the  word  "  by ; " 
as,  in  the  above  example,  the  cow  Phoenix  is  distin- 
guished from  all  others  of  the  same  name  by  being 
the  daughter  of  the  bull  Foljambe  (86). 

As  there  are  several  Short-Horn  herd-books,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  indicate  in  the  pedigree  the  par- 
ticular record  to.  which  the  numbers  attached  to  the 
names  of  bulls  refer. 

"Where  some  other  method  is  not  specified,  num- 
bers without  distinguishing  marks  are  understood  as  re- 
ferring to  "  The  American  Herd-Book ; "  those  placed 


PEDIGREE.  351 

within  marks  of  parenthesis  (  )  refer  to  "  The  English 
Herd-Book,"  as  in  the  above  examples ;  while  the 
numbers  of  "The  Canadian  Herd-Book"  are  placed 
within  brackets  [  ]. 

When  numbers  refer  to  Alexander's  "  Short-Horn 
Record,"  the  method  of  distinguishing  them  is  usually 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  pedigree. 

In  the  Devon,  Jersey,  and  Ayrshire  herd-books, 
the  females,  as  well  as  the  males,  have  a  distinguish- 
ing number. 

For  the  convenience  of  those  who  are  not  familiar 
with  recorded  pedigrees,  examples  showing  the  form 
of  record  in  the  different  herd-books  will  be  found  in 
the  Appendix. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

FORM   OF   ANIMALS   AS   AN   INDEX   OF   QUALITIES. 

THE  constitutional  tendencies  and  general  charac- 
teristics of  animals  may  be  ascertained,  as  we  have 
seen,  with  great  certainty  by  a  study  of  their  ancestral 
history.  Any  additional  information  in  regard  to  the 
details  of  the  organization,  which  determine  the  quali- 
ties that  are  of  value  in  the  economy  of  the  farm,  as 
the  disposition,  nervous  energy,  muscular  strengtli 
and  activity,  quality  of  flesh,  proportion  of  valuable 
carcass,  activity  of  the  processes  of  nutrition,  and 
strength  of  constitution,  must  be  gained  through  the 
indications  presented  in  the  external  form,  that  are 
manifest  to  the  sight  and  touch. 

Too  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  relations 
existing  between  the  external  form  of  the  animal  and 
its  internal  and  more  obscure  characteristics,  upon 
which  its  value  in  a  great  measure  depends. 

Every  part  of  the  external  conformation  should  be 
associated  in  the  mind  of  the  breeder  with  the  corre- 
lated peculiarities  of  structure  that  give  the  greatest 
value  to  the  animal  for  some  particular  purpose,  and 
thus  serve  as  an  index  to  the  many  important  charac- 
teristics that  might  otherwise  escape  attention. 

The  eye  should  be  trained  to  detect  the  slight 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         353 

modifications  of  form  that  indicate  real  values,  and 
our  notions  of  beauty  in  external  form  and  expression 
should  be  based  upon  an  assemblage  of  symmetrical 
characters  that  are  in  themselves  useful. 

"Without  some  consistent  standards  of  beauty  and 
utility,  that  have  a  definite  relation  to  the  details  of 
the  organization,  individuals  will  unavoidably  differ 
in  opinion,  not  only  as  to  what  constitutes  perfection 
of  form,  but  as  to  the  relative  value  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  body,  which,  when  taken  together,  give 
expression  to  the  general  conformation  of  the  animal. 

Any  general  expression  of  symmetry  or  proportion 
that  is  pleasing  to  the  eye  may  be  regarded,  by  the 
unskilled  observer,  as  a  form  of  beauty  that  is  satis- 
factory, although  it  may  not  represent  any  of  the 
qualities  that  render  the  animal  valuable  for  any  use- 
ful purpose. 

The  practical  man,  looking  upon  pecuniary  values 
as  the  true  standard  of  excellence,  will  only  be  pleased 
with  the  symmetrical  proportions  of  form  that  indi- 
cate the  presence  of  valuable  qualities  in  the  greatest 
perfection. 

In  the  improved  breeds  the  peculiarities  of  form 
and  character  that  adapt  the  animal  to  a  particular 
purpose  are  most  highly  prized,  and  the  relative  value 
of  individuals  therefore  depends,  to  a  great  •  extent, 
upon  their  development  in  a  special  direction. 

The  principle  of  correlation  that  enables  the  breed- 
er to  determine  the  internal  characteristics  and  ten- 
dencies of  the  organization,  through  the  indications 
presented  by  the  external  form,  is  of  general  applica- 
tion, and  may  be  made  use  of  in  the  study  of  animals 


354  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

representing  the  different  breeds ;  bat  the  points  upon 
which  an  opinion  is  formed  will  necessarily  have  a 
different  value  in  each  breed,  from  the  difference  in 
the  qualities  that  constitute  perfection. 

In  animals  intended  for  the  butcher,  the  most 
satisfactory  test  of  merit  can  only  be  applied  when 
they  reach  their  destination  on  the  Mock,  where  the 
relative  development  of  the  most  valuable  parts  can 
be  readily  demonstrated. 

This  test,  from  its  very  nature,  cannot,  however, 
be  applied  in  those  cases  in  which  a  reliable  method 
of  estimating  real  values  is  most  needed — as  in  deter- 
mining the  relative  merits  of  breeding-stock,  or  the 
feeding  qualities  of  animals  that  are  to  be  fattened. 

As  a  practical  test  of  the  true  value  cannot,  in 
many  instances,  be  applied  to  the  living  animal — as 
in  determining  the  greatest  proportion  of  choice  parts 
in  animals  intended  for  the  butcher — the  prospective 
value  of  young  animals  for  the  dairy  or  for  work — or 
the  ability  of  animals  in  the  lean  condition  to  fatten 
rapidly  when  well  fed — we  must  resort  to  the  ancestral 
history  for  a  knowledge  of  inherited  tendencies,  and 
to  the  details  of  external  conformation  for  an  index 
of  all  other  particulars. 

To  become  an  expert  in  judging  animals  with 
reference  to  their  value  on  the  whole,  for  a  particular 
purpose,  requires  extended  opportunities  for  observa- 
tion under  a  variety  of  conditions — a  careful  study  of 
their  form  when  alive,  in  connection  with  their  ap- 
pearance on  the  butcher's  block,  where  the  leading 
object  is  meat,  and  for  other  purposes,  the  relations  of 
their  form  to  the  activity  of  the  functions  concerned 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         355 

— in  the  performance  of  labor,  or  in  the  production  of 
wool  and  milk — must  not  be  overlooked,  and  even 
then  a  long  experience  will  be  required  to  train  the 
eye  and  the  touch  to  make  nice  discriminations  in 
essential  details. 

Admitting,  then,  that  the  thorough  knowledge  of 
animals  that  enables  a  person  to  form  a  correct  opinion 
as  to  characteristics  and  quality  cannot  be  gained 
without  practical  training  and  experience,  it  is  never- 
theless true  that  the  acquisition  of  such  knowledge 
may  be  facilitated  by  a  study  of  the  correlated  struct- 
ure of  the  animal  organization,  so  that  the  relative 
value  of  different  parts,  and  the  relations  of  one  organ 
or  set  of  organs  to  another,  and  to  the  entire  system, 
may  be  clearly  understood. 

The  principles  that  are  applied  in  the  study  of 
comparative  anatomy  and  physiology,  in  tracing  the 
harmonies  of  structure  and  function  in  allied  groups, 
which  have  been  discussed  in  a  preceding  chapter, 
must  then  be  of  practical  interest  to  the  breeder,  as 
they  aid  him  in  determining  the  relative  value  of  the 
various  modifications  of  form  observed  in  the  animals 
he  is  trying  to  improve. 

Moreover,  the  external  form  and  proportions  of  an 
animal,  when  studied  from  this  point  of  view,  cannot 
fail  to  furnish  the  most  satisfactory  indications  of  the 
structure  and  functional  activity  of  the  internal  organs 
concerned  in  the  complex  processes  of  nutrition,  upon 
which  all  forms  of  animal  products  depend. 

As  the  greatest  excellence  in  the  production  of 
meat,  or  milk,  or  wool,  or  labor,  involves  peculiarities 
of  structure  and  function  that  adapt  the  animal  in 


356 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


each,  case  to  a  special  purpose,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
consider  separately  the  correlations  existing  in  these 
different  forms  of  production. 


All  animals  belonging  to  the  best  developed  meat- 
producing  breeds  have  essentially  the  same  general 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         357 

characters  and  form,  and  a  corresponding  similarity 
prevails  in  their  correlated  structure. 


The  following  characteristics  may  be  mentioned 
as  of  especial  importance,  the  absence  of  any  one  of 
them  tending  to  materially  diminish  the  value  of  the 
animal  in  the  production  of  meat : 


358  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

1.  A  sound  constitution  is  of  course  desirable  in 
all  animals,  but  it  is  indispensable  in  the  feeding  ani- 
mal whose  powers  of  nutrition  are  taxed  to  the  fullest 
extent  in  the  rapid  conversion  of  the  food  that  is  re- 
quired in  successful  feeding. 

2.  Good  feeding  quality,  or  the  ability  to  fatten 
rapidly  at  an  early  age  and  return  the  largest  profit 
for  food  consumed. 

3.  The  flesh  should  be  of  good  quality,  and  the 
carcass  should  furnish  the  largest  possible  proportion 
of  choice  parts,  with  a  corresponding  diminution  of 
the  parts  of  little  or  no  value. 

The  general  proportions  of  the  animal  which  first 
naturally  attract  attention  will  frequently  furnish  in- 
dications of  its  leading  characteristics,  without  an 
examination  of  the  details  of  its  conformation. 

Many  of  the  best  authorities  on  external  form 
agree  in  the  statement  that  the  body  of  an  animal 
intended  for  the  butcher  should  be  somewhat  rectan- 
gular in  outline,  giving  the  form  of  a  parallelogram 
when  viewed  from  the  side,  and  of  a  square  when 
viewed  from  before  or  behind  ; l  but,  in  approximating 
to  these  mathematical  figures  in  outline,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  angular  parts  of  the  body  must 
be  rounded  and  smoothly  blended  with  the  general 
surface,  without  any  bony  prominences  or  coarseness 
to  detract  from  the  general  expression  of  compactness, 
substance,  and  symmetry,  that  marks  the  perfection  of 
useful  beauty. 

1  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  v.,  p.  162,  vol.  vi.,  p.  267 ; 
Johnson's  "  Farmer's  Encyclopaedia,"  p.  299 ;  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol. 
xxxix.,  p.  480,  vol.  ii.,  p.  97. 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         359 


360  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

Several  illustrations  of  the  rectangular  type  of 
form  that  prevails  in  the  meat-producing  breeds  are 
given  in  the  outline  sketches,  Figs.  1,  2,  3,  5,  6,  and 
7 ;  in  contrast  with  them,  Figs.  8  and  9  furnish  good 
illustrations  of  forms  that  are  objectionable. 

Regularity  and  symmetry  in  the  general  outline 
are  not,  however,  sufficient  in  themselves  to  constitute 
perfection  in  external  form,  the  proportions  of  the 
body  being  quite  as  important  as  an  indication  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  animal. 

If  the  body  is  excessively  long,  without  corre- 
sponding depth  and  substance,  and  the  under -line, 
from  the  proportionate  length  of  legs,  is  too  far  from 
the  ground,  a  delicacy  of  constitution  is  indicated,  in 
connection  with  poor  feeding  quality,  late  maturity, 
and  a  deficiency  in  the  proportion  of  choice  parts  in 
the  carcass. 

The  long-bodied  bull,  Fig.  4,  sketched  from  life, 
has  nearly  all  the  defects  that  usually  accompany  such 
faulty  proportions  in  general  form.  The  chest  is  nar- 
row and  lacking  in  capacity,  as  indicated  by  the  form 
of  the  brisket,  the  defective  fore-flank,  flat  ribs,  and 
deficient  girth ;  the  shoulder  is  too  upright,  the  crops 
defective,  the  loins  narrow,  the  flanks  light,  and  there 
is  too  large  a  proportion  of  the  coarser  parts  of  the 
carcass. 

A  low  and  remarkably  short  body,  with  great 
depth  and  thickness  of  carcass,  as  in  Fig.  5,  indicates 
a  tendency  to  mature  early,  to  lay  on  fat  rapidly,  and 
it  may  be  in  excess  and  in  masses  that  are  objection- 
able, with  a  deficiency  in  muscle  or  lean  meat.  From 
their  extreme  compactness  such  animals  may  weigh 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         361 


362  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         363 

well  in  proportion  to  size,  but  the  weight,  on  the 
whole,  may  be  deficient,  and  the  flesh,  from  the  exces- 
sive proportion  of  fat,  may  not  be  of  the  best  quality. 

Notwithstanding  the  objections  to  these  very  short 
and  compact  animals,  as  a  type  of  the  best  form  for 
the  production  of  meat,  they  may  be  advantageously 
used  as  sires  in  flocks  and  herds  that  are  decidedly 
deficient  in  fattening  quality ;  the  excessive  tendency 
to  the  production  of  fat  and  the  deficiency  in  muscle 
or  lean  meat  being  corrected  by  the  opposite  tenden- 
cies of  the  females  with  which  they  are  coupled. 

Of  the  two  extreme  types  of  form  that  have  been 
presented  the  latter  is  to  be  preferred,  as  the  defects 
consist  only  in  the  undue  prominence  or  excessive  de- 
velopment of  qualities  that  are  in  themselves  desirable. 

When  the  depth  and  thickness  of  the  body  are  in 
proper  proportion  to  the  length,  as  in  Fig.  6,  and  the 
lower  joints  of  the  legs  are  short,  so  that  there  is  not 
too  much  space  between  the  lower  line  of  the  body 
and  the  ground,  good  feeding  quality  and  early  matu- 
rity may  be  looked  for,  in  connection  with  good  mus- 
cular development  and  flesh  of  the  best  quality,  the 
fat  being  evenly  distributed,  while  the  harmony  of 
proportions  and  great  substance  will  give  the  greatest 
weight  of  valuable  carcass. 

Animals  of  the  same  dressed  weight  when  exam- 
ined on  the  butcher's  block  will  be  found  to  present 
great  differences  in  the  -relative  proportion  of  the 
cheap  and  the  high-priced  parts,  and  they  will  there- 
fore differ  greatly  in  actual  value,  without  taking  into 
account  any  differences  that  may  exist  in  the  general 
quality  of  flesh. 


364  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         365 

The  cheap  parts  cannot,  as  a  matter  of  course,  be 
entirely  dispensed  with ;  but  they  should  be  reduced 
in  amount  as  far  as  possible  without  interfering  with 
the  strength  and  vigor  of  the  animal. 

If  a  line  be  drawn  from  the  shoulder-point  to  the 
knee  (patella,  or  whirlbone),  or  first  joint  below  the 
hip  (i.  e,,  the  joint  nearest  the  flank),  in  the  living 
animal,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  parts  of  the  body 
above  this  line  are  of  greater  value  as  meat  than  the 
parts  below. 

In  judging  of  the  relative  value  of  two  animals 
that  are  equal  in  all  other  particulars,  it  will  therefore 
be  safe  to  say  that  the  one  giving  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  carcass  above  the  line  is  the  best  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  butcher. 

In  the  best-proportioned  animal  it  will  likewise  be 
seen  that  the  sides  of  the  body  are  filled  out  to  the 
line,  when  applied,  as  above  directed,  in  its  entire 
length,  without  leaving  any  depressions  between  the 
line  and  the  body  at  the  flank  and  behind  the  arm. 

This  test  will  be  found  of  value  to  the  student  in 
training  the  eye  to  detect  slight  variations  in  form, 
while  the  experienced  breeder  will  be  able  to  take  in 
at  a  glance  the  conditions  presented  in  these  propor- 
tions without  resorting  to  the  method  of  actual  meas- 
urement.1 

1  For  observations  on  the  general  form  of  animals  the  student  may 
profitably  consult  "The  New  Farmer's  Calendar,"  by  Lawrence,  pp, 
454,  455 ;"  The  Complete  Grazier,"  p.  35  j  Coventry  on  "  Agriculture," 
p.  174;  "A  Guide  to  Form  in  Cattle,"  by  Welles j  Harris  on  "The 
Pig,"  p.  17 ;  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xv.,  p.  87  ; 
Marshall's  "  Midland  Counties,"  vol.  i.,  p.  297;  Youatt  on  "Cattle,"  p. 
191 ;  "American  Cattle,"  by  Allen,  p.  168 ;  Farmer'*  Magazine^.  xi., 


366  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

The  skeleton  or  bony  frame  of  the  animal  may- 
next  be  profitably  examined.  As  bones  are  of  but 
little  value,  aside  from  the  support  they  furnish  for 
the  soft  parts  of  the  body,  they  should  be  as  small  as 
is  consistent  with  strength  and  a  vigorous  constitution. 

Fortunately,  however,  the  greatest  strength  does 
not  depend  upon  size,  but  upon  texture,  the  quality 
being  of  greater  importance  than  quantity.  An  illus- 
tration of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  long  bones,  the  shaft 
which  bears  the  greatest  strain  being  small  from  com- 
pactness and  fineness  of  structure,  while  the  extremi- 
ties are  large  and  spongy,  the  greater  surface  being  of 
use  for  the  attachment  of  the  tendinous  terminations 
of  the  muscles. 

A  large,  coarse  bone  may  not  only  be  deficient  in 
strength,  but  it  will  increase  the  weight  of  the  carcass 
without  adding  to  its  value. 

Small  bones  are  an  indication  of  good  feeding 
quality,  early  maturity,  and  superior,  fine-grained 
flesh ;  while  coarse,  large  bones,  with  prominent  joints 
and  angular  projections  of  the  skeleton,  indicate  poor 
feeding  quality,  late  maturity,  and  coarse  flesh,  in 
connection  with  a  large  proportion  of  offal  and  cheap 
*  pieces  in  the  carcass  when  reaching  its  final  destina- 
tion on  the  block.1 


p.  98,  vol.  xxxvii.,  p.  318,  vol.  xxxix.,  p.  478,  vol.  xl.,  p.  232  ;  Cline's 
"  Observations  on  the  Breeding  and  Form  of  Domestic  Animals,"  pp. 
1-8 ;  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  v.,  p.  266,  vol.  vi.,  p.  159  ; 
Johnson's  "  Farmer's  Encyclopaedia,"  p.  297,  and  other  standard  works. 
1  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol.  xi.,  p.  98,  vol.  xl.,  p.  231 ;  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xv.,  p.  87 ;  Young's  "  Eastern  Tour," 
vol.  i.,  p.  3. 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         367 

"  Bakewell  strongly  insisted  on  the  advantage  of 
small  bones,  and  the  celebrated  John  Hunter  declared 
that  small  bones  were  generally  attended  with  corpu- 
lence in  all  the  various  subjects  he  had  an  opportunity 
of  examining."  * 

Mr.  Henry  Cline,  an  English  surgeon,  says :  "  The 
strength  of  an  animal  does  not  depend  on  the  size  of 
the  bones,  but  on  that  of  the  muscles.  Many  animals 
with  large  bones  are  weak,  their  muscles  being  small. 
Animals  that  were  imperfectly  nourished  during 
growth  have  their  bones  disproportionately  large.  If 
such  deficiency  of  nourishment  originated  from  a  con- 
stitutional defect,  which  is  the  most  frequent  cause, 
they  remain  weak  during  life.  Large  bones,  there- 
fore, generally  indicate  an  imperfection  in  the  organs 
of  nutrition"  a 

The  parts  of  the  animal  that  are  not  deeply  cov- 
ered with  flesh — as  the  head,  legs,  and  tail,  together 
with  the  horns,  when  present,  and  the  hoofs,  although 
of  but  little  value  in  themselves — furnish  the  best 
indications  of  the  size,  texture,  and  proportions,  of  the 
bones  throughout  the  entire  system ;  and  in  the  im- 
proved breeds  they  give  an  expression  of  refinement 
and  high  quality  to  the  otherwise  massive  structure 
of  the  general  organization. 

Improvements  in  this  direction,  however,  have  a 
limit  that  cannot  be  safely  passed,  as  an  excessive  re- 
finement of  the  bony  tissues  is  often  accompanied  by 
a  delicacy  of  constitution  that  predisposes  the  system 
to  disease  from  exciting  causes  that  would  have  little 

1  Sinclair's  "  Code  of  Agriculture,"  p.  88. 

2  "  Breeding  and  Form  of  Domestic  Animals,"  p.  7. 


368  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

or  no  effect  upon  animals  that  have  not  been  subject- 
ed to  artificial  conditions  in  their  management. 

It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  the  constitution 
is  impaired  by  diminishing  the  size  of  the  bones,  or 
that  an  increase  in  their  size  adds  to  its  general 
vigor. 

All  the  best  qualities  of  the  improved  breeds,  as 
has  been  shown  elsewhere,  have  been  obtained  by 
artificial  treatment,  that  tended  to  disturb  the  equi- 
librium of  the  system,  and  produce  changes  in  the 
functional  activity  of  the  most  important  organs  that 
give  rise  to  modifications  of  the  structure,  that  are  not 
observed  under  what  may  be  called  the  normal  condi- 
tions of  existence, 

A  greater  degree  of  refinement  and  delicacy  of 
one  set  of  organs  involves  a  similar  change  in  other 
organs,  through  the  influence  of  the  same  modifying 
agencies  which  affect  the  entire  system;  and  these, 
when  acting  in  excess,  may  produce  a  sensitiveness  or 
delicacy  of  the  organization  as  a  whole,  that  we  recog- 
nize as  a  defect  of  constitutional  vigor. 

An  excessive  refinement  of  the  bones  would  there- 
fore indicate  a  delicacy  and  over-refinement  of  the 
general  system. 

In  discussing  the  details  of  external  form,  with 
reference  to  the  qualities  indicated  by  peculiarities  in 
the  development  of  particular  parts,  we  will,  in  the 
first  place,  examine  the  points  of  the  improved  Short- 
Horns,  as  they  may  be  fairly  assumed  to  represent  the 
type  of  the  meat-producing  breeds  in  their  most  im- 
portant characters. 

The  peculiarities  of  other  allied  breeds  will  only 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         369 

be  noticed  comparatively  when  they  differ  materially 
from  the  typical  form  under  consideration. 

The  "  points  "  or  parts  of  the  animal  that  require 
attention  are  marked  on  the  outline  figure  of  a  Short- 
Horn  cow  (Fig.  7) :  A,  forehead ;  J5,  face ;  C,  cheek ; 
D,  muzzle ;  E,  neck ;  F>  neck-vein ;  G,  shoulder- 
point  ;  H)  arm ;  /,  shank ;  K,  elbow ;  .£,  brisket ;  M, 
shoulder-blade ;  W^  crops ;  O,  chine ;  P,  loin ;  Q, 
hips ;  JR,  rump ;  &,  sacrum  or  crupper-bone ;  jT,  but- 
tock; U,  thigh  or  gaskin;  F~,  flank;  W,  plates;  JT, 
hock ;  Y,  throat ;  Z,  fore-flank ;  qr,  quarter ;  wh,  pa- 
tella or  whirlbone.1 

The  head  should  be  small  in  proportion  to  the 
body ;  the  frontal  bone  broad,  without  coarseness ;  the 
forehead  slightly  concave  from  the  prominence  of  the 
rim  of  the  orbits;  and  the  face  gradually  tapering 
from  the  eyes  to  the  muzzle,  which  should  be  fine, 
with  a  well-developed  nostril,  which  indicates  an  am- 
ple development  of  the  air-passages. 

The  jaw  should  be  clean  and  free  from  folds  of 

1  As  the  terms  chine  and  whirlbone  are  often  improperly  used  to 
indicate  other  parts  of  the  body,  it  may  be  well  to  define  them  more 
particularly.  Chine,  in  its  general  signification,  means  back ;  but  it 
has  long  been  used  by  breeders  to  indicate  that  part  of  the  back  be- 
tween the  neck  and  the  loins.  The  back  is  therefore  divided  into  three 
regions,  viz.,  the  chine,  the  loins,  and  the  region  of  the  sacrum  or  crup- 
per-bone. The  upper  end  of  the  femur  has  sometimes  been  called  the 
whirl  or  round  bone.  (See  Youatt  on  "  The  Horse,"  p.  262.)  The 
terms  whirlbone,  turlbone,  round-bone,  knee-pan,  knee-cap,  and  stifle- 
bone  are,  however,  properly  synonymous  with  patella,  the  bone  devel- 
oped in  the  tendon  covering  the  knee-joint,  or  the  articulation  of  the 
lower  end  of  the  femur  with  the  head  of  the  tibia,  as  marked  in  Fig.  7. 
(See  Webster's,  Worcester's,  and  Ainsworth's  Dictionaries,  and  Wright's 
"Provincial  Dictionary,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  1019.) 


370  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         371 

skin,  and  there  must  be  no  superfluous  flesh,  on  other 
parts  of  the  head  and  face  to  give  the  animal  a  heavy- 
headed  appearance.  These  peculiarities  in  the  head 
and  face  are  an  indication  of  fine  bones  in  the  general 
skeleton,  and  the  qualities  that  are  usually  associated 
with  them.  The  eye,  when  prominent,  bright,  and 
clear,  with  a  mild  and  gentle  expression,  is  an  indica- 
tion of  health,  with  a  quiet  disposition  and  good  feed- 
ing quality.  If  the  eye  is  dull  and  sunken,  the  capil- 
lary circulation  will  be  defective,  and  the  functions  of 
nutrition  imperfectly  performed ;  and  there  will  not 
only  be  a  deficiency  in  the  ability  to  fatten,  but  a  lack 
of  strength  and  constitutional  vigor.  A  restless  and 
wild  expression  of  the  eye  indicates  a  predominance 
of  nervous  action  and  an  unquiet  disposition  that  is 
not  compatible  with  good  feeding  quality. 

The  ear  should  be  large,  without  coarseness  and 
not  drooping,  but  with  sufficient  action  to  give  a  pleas- 
ing expression. 

A  drooping  ear,  with  a  general  dull  expression  of 
countenance,  is  an  indication  of  defective  nutrition 
and  a  lack  of  constitutional  vigor. 

The  horns  of  animals  are  generally  supposed  to  be 
of  no  value,  aside  from  their  influence  upon  the  gen- 
eral expression,  which  is  considered  a  matter  of  fancy 
only. 

Each  breed  has  peculiarities  in  the  size  and  form 
of  the  horns  that  are,  within  certain  limits,  character- 
istic ;  and  individual  breeders  will  choose  those  modi- 
fications of  the  general  type  that  best  accord  with 
their  ideas  of  beauty. 

Notwithstanding  these  admissible  variations  in  gen- 


3Y2  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

eral  form,  there  are  certain  peculiarities  in  the  devel- 
ment  and  texture  of  the  horns  that  may  serve  alike  in 
all  breeds  as  an  index  of  internal  qualities. 

The  horns  of  the  hollow-horned  ruminants,  in- 
cluding cattle  and  sheep,  consist  of  a  hollow  bony 
core  developed  from  the  frontal  bone,  and  a  sheath 
or  covering  of  true  horn  which,  as  is  the  case  also 
with  the  horn  forming  the  hoofs,  is  composed  of  ag- 
glutinated hairs  developed  from  a  papillary  layer  of 
the  skin.1 

In  young  animals  this  horny  sheath  is  thickened 
by  an  epidermal  layer  that  is  shed  as  the  animal  grows 
older,  leaving  the  horns  smoother,  and  at  the  same 
time  diminishing  their  size.  In  texture  the  horn  form- 
ing the  sheath  of  the  horns,  and  the  hoofs,  seems  to 
be  correlated  with  the  general  bony  skeleton,  the  coat, 
the  skin,  the  flesh,  and  the  organs  of  nutrition ;  a 
clear,  fine-grained  texture  being  an  indication  of  good 
feeding  quality  and  a  general  refinement  of  the  sys- 
tem ;  while  a  coarse-grained,  spongy  texture  indicates 
a  poor  feeder  and  a  predominance  of  the  coarser  and 
less  valuable  parts  of  the  carcass.  Although  the  head 
is  of  but  little  value  in  the  slaughtered  animal,  its 
peculiarities  in  the  development  of  its  appendages,  as 
well  as  its  form  and  proportions,  may,  through  the 
correlations  of  structure,  aid  in  forming  an  opinion  in 
regard  to  the  condition  of  other  parts  of  the  system 
that  have  a  greater  intrinsic  value. 

1  "  Hand-Book  of  Zoology,"  by  Van  Der  Hoeven,  vol.  ii.,  p.  650 ; 
"  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  vol.  v.,  pp.  478-516 ;  "  Anat- 
omy of  the  Vertebrate  Animals,"  by  Huxley,  p.  327 ;  "  Comparative 
Anatomy,"  by  Wagner,  p.  2. 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         3Y3 

As  the  neck  furnishes  the  butcher  with  cheap 
pieces  only,  it  might  at  first  glance  appear  that  it 
should  be  as  light  as  possible,  to  diminish  the  propor- 
tion of  the  coarser  parts  of  the  carcass.  In  practice, 
however,  it  will  be  found  true  that  improvements  in 
this  direction  have  limits  that  cannot  be  safely  passed. 
The  neck  should  be  short,  but  well  developed  at  the 
base,  to  blend  symmetrically  with  the  chine  and  shoul- 
ders, and  thus  add  to  the  value  of  the  fore-quarter  by 
increasing  the  thickness  of  flesh  in  parts  that  would 
otherwise  be  defective ;  and  it  should  also  taper  gradu- 
ally toward  the  head,  without  the  development  of  a 
dewlap  or  other  indications  of  coarseness. 

Dr.  Finlay  Dun  says :  "  The  distance  between  the 
ears  and  the  angle  of  the  jaw  should  be  short,  but  the 
width  behind  the  ears  considerable — an  important 
character  in  relation  to  health,  as  cattle  with  necks 
narrow  and  hollow  behind  the  ears  are  defective  in 
vigor.  A  well-developed  neck  also  indicates  vigor, 
and  is  especially  necessary  in  the  bull  and  in  cattle  in- 
tended for  feeding.  Many  good  milch-cows,  however, 
have  long  fine  necks ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  no  cow 
will  ever  be  of  much  value  for  the  dairy  with  a  short 
thick  neck." * 

The  thickness  of  the  neck,  particularly  at  the  base, 
seems  also  to  have  a  direct  relation  to  the  capacity  of 
the  chest,  which  the  feeder  will  consider  as  one  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  the  animal.  Many  breeders 
of  mutton-sheep  prefer  a  thick  neck,  as  it  is  usually 
found  in  connection  with  a  capacious  chest  and  a  vig- 
orous constitution,  and  thick  flesh  along  the  back.  The 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xv.,  p.  87. 


374  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

upper  line  of  the  neck  should  be  well  up  to  the  line 
of  the  chine  and  loin,  as  a  drooping  neck  is  an  indica- 
tion of  poor  feeding  quality.1 

"When  the  shoulders  are  too  upright,  there  is  often 
a  deficiency  in  the  crops,  and  the  shoulder-points  are 
liable  to  be  prominent.  If  the  shoulders  are  oblique 
and  broad  at  the  top,  they  blend  easily  with  the  chine 
and  crops ;  and,  when  thickly  covered  with  flesh 
throughout  their  entire  surface,  the  points  being  ob- 
scured by  the  development  of  cellular  tissue  at  the 
base  of  the  neck,  the  fore-quarter  will  furnish  a  good 
proportion  of  valuable  meat.  It  has  been  observed 
that,  if  the  shoulders  are  extremely  oblique  and  nar- 
row at  the  top,  the  upper  part  of  the  blade-bone  is 
not  likely  to  be  well  covered  with  flesh.3 

The  chest  contains  the  lungs,  the  heart,  and  the 
larger  blood-vessels,  all  of  which  have  an  important 
function  to  perform  in  the  process  of  nutrition. 

The  constitutional  vigor,  health,  and  feeding  qual- 
ity of  animals,  will  therefore  depend  upon  the  full  de- 
velopment of  these  organs,  and  a  capacious  chest  that 
will  permit  a  free  and  vigorous  performance  of  their 
functions. 

It  is  well  known  to  breeders  that  animals  with  a 
small  chest  do  not  fatten  readily,8  and  they  are  remark- 

1  Youatt  on  "Sheep,"  p.  418;  Farmer's  Magazine,  vol.  xi.,  p.  98, 
vol.  xl.,  p.  232  ;  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xvi.,  p. 
36,  vol.  vii.,  p.  208. 

2  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  vii.,  p.  208 ;  Far- 
mer's Magazine,  vol.  xxxvii.,  p.  319;  Welles's  "Guide  to  Form  in 
Cattle." 

3  Sir  John  Sebright's  "Art  of  Improving  Breeds,"  p.  22.     W.  F. 
Karkeek,  V.  S.,  has  assumed,  on  theoretical  grounds,  that  a  capacious 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         375 

ably  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  exciting  causes  of 
disease. 

The  brisket,  in  itself  considered,  is  of  but  little 
value,  but  its  form  is  nevertheless  of  great  impor- 
tance. A  narrow-pointed  brisket  may  have  a  consider- 
able development  in  depth,  and  it  may  be  prominent 
when  viewed  from  the  side,  but  it  will  usually  be  ac- 
companied with  a  chest  that  is  too  narrow  at  the  base 
and  lacking  in  depth  behind  the  arm,  a  light  fore-flank, 
and  a  deficiency  in  the  development  of  muscle  and  cel- 
lular tissue  between  the  base  of  the  neck  and  the  arm. 

Too  often  this  form  of  brisket  will  be  found  in 
animals  with  upright  shoulders  and  defective  crops. 

When  the  brisket  is  broad,  filling  out  the  space  on 
the  inside  of  the  arm  in  front,  and  its  lower  surface 
projects  but  little  below  the  under-line  of  the  body, 
the  base  of  the  chest  will  be  well  developed  and  its 
sides  well  covered  with  flesh,  giving  a  good  fore-flank ; 
and  there  will  be,  as  a  rule,  a  greater  compactness  and 
uniformity  in  the  general  symmetry  of  the  fore-quar- 
ter, and  a  better  quality  of  flesh. 

The  hind-quarters  present  some  peculiarities  in 
the  correlation  of  parts  that  are  of  particular  interest 
to  the  breeder. 

An  extreme  illustration  of  this  may  be  seen  in 
what  are  popularly  called  "pumpkin-buttocks,"  "ly- 
ery,"  or  «  black-fleshed  "  cattle  (Fig.  8).  The  loins  of 
these  animals  are  very  narrow,  and  the  rump  corre- 

ehest  is  incompatible  with  the  rapid  production  of  fat ;  but,  as  this 
assumption  is  based  on  an  exploded  theory  of  respiration,  it  does  not 
require  further  notice.  (See  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society, 
vol.  v.,  p.  255.) 


376 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


spondingly  short,  the  tail  being  set  on  quite  close  to 
the  line  of  the  hips.  The  buttocks  are  remarkably 
full,  forming  a  decided  protuberance,  that  extends  to 


the  outer  side  of  the  thighs.  With  this  external  con- 
formation will  be  found  a  deficiency  in  the  formation 
of  fat  throughout  the  system,  the  kidneys  being 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES. 

scarcely  covered  even  in  animals  that  have  been  high- 
ly fed,  while  the  flesh  is  very  dark-colored,  coarse- 
grained, and  of  decidedly  inferior  flavor. 

"When  any  one  of  the  above-described  peculiarities 
of  external  form  is  present  in  a  marked  degree,  the 
others  will  in  all  probability  be  found  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent,  together  with  an  inferior  quality  of  flesh. 

In  these  cases  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  best  parts 
of  the  carcass  are  reduced  .to  a  minimum,  and  the 
coarsest  parts  are  largely  in  excess. 

In  the  best-formed  animals  the  hind-quarters  pre- 
sent a  marked  contrast  to  the  form  we  have  had  under 
consideration.  The  loins  are  long  and  wide,  dimin- 
ishing the  triangular  space  between  the  hips  and  the 
last  ribs,  and  carrying  the  largest  possible  amount  of 
choice  flesh. 

The  hips  should  be  broad,  and  the  rumps  long 
and  well-filled  at  the  sides,  between  the  hips  and  the 
points  of  the  ,rump.  The  tail  should  be  set  on  in  a 
line  with  the  back,  its  base  being  broad,  from  a  devel- 
opment of  the  transverse  processes,  corresponding 
with  a  similar  characteristic  of  the  loins  and  sacrum ; 
while  the  cord,  which,  in  its  bony  structure,  consists 
of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  only,  should  be  fine,  as 
an  indication  of  small  bones  in  the  general  skeleton. 

The  quarters  from  the  hips  and  rump  to  the  thigh 
should  represent  a  vertical  plane,  while  the  twist 
should  be  full  and  even,  without  any  marked  protu- 
berance of  the  buttocks.  "With  this  conformation  will 
be  found  an  abundance  of  fine-grained,  valuable  meat, 
while  the  inferior  pieces  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  Texan  steer  (Fig.  9)  presents  a  marked  con- 


378 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


trast  in  its  form  and  proportions  to  the  best  type  for 
the  production  of  meat.     In  animals  like  this  some 


good  flesh  may  be  found  in  the  best  parts ;  but  their 
value,  on  the  whole,  is  materially  diminished  by  the 
great  preponderance  of  coarse  parts  in  the  carcass. 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         379 

The  "  handling,"  « touch,"  or  "  quality,"  although 
difficult  to  describe,  furnishes  valuable  indications  of 
many  of  the  most  important  characteristics  of  an  ani- 
mal. 

A  delicacy  of  the  sense  of  touch  is  required  to 
make  nice  discriminations  by  this  method  of  examina- 
tion, that  can  only  be  acquired  by  constant  practice ; 
and  a  comparison  of  the  handling  of  animals  that  pre- 
sent differences  in  the  condition  of  the  coat  and  skin 
will  need  to  be  frequently  made  to  prevent  errors  in 
judgment  in  special  cases.  A  knowledge  of  the  phys- 
iological principles  on  which  this  method  of  examina- 
tion is  based  will  be  useful  to  the  beginner,,  as  it  will 
enable  him  to  appreciate  those  slight  variations  in 
quality  that  might  otherwise  escape  his  attention,  and 
to  understand  more  fully  what  he  may  reasonably 
expect  to  learn  from  its  practical  applications. 

The  activity  of  the  capillary  circulation,  it  is  well 
known,  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  processes 
of  nutrition.  If  the  materials  that  have  been  pre- 
pared by  the  organs  of  digestion  for  the  nourishment 
of  the  system  are  not  freely  conveyed  to  every  part  of 
the  organization,  the  best  returns  for  feed  consumed 
cannot  be  obtained. 

As  the  skin  is  abundantly  supplied  with  capillary 
blood-vessels,  an  examination  of  its  properties  by  the 
"touch"  will  furnish  the  best  means  of  ascertaining 
the  manner  in  which  this  part  of  the  circulatory  appa- 
ratus is  performing  its  functions. 

If  the  capillary  circulation  is  actively  carried  on 
in  the  skin,  at  the  greatest  possible  distance  from  the 
large  vessels  of  the  systemic  circulation,  the  internal 


380  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

parts  of  the  organization  that  are  more  favorably  situ- 
ated cannot  fail  to  be  abundantly  supplied  with  the 
materials  required  for  the  renovation  and  increase  of 
their  tissues. 

What,  then,  are  the  indications  of  activity  in  the 
processes  of  circulation  and  assimilation  in  the  skin 
that  may  be  safely  relied  on  as  an  index  of  the  per- 
formance of  these  functions  in  other  parts  of  the  sys- 
tem? 

The  experience  of  practical  men  has  enabled  them 
to  give  an  answer  to  this  question  that  is  strictly  in 
accordance  with  the  principles  of  physiological  sci- 
ence. 

Without  a  knowledge  of  the  correlations  of  struct- 
ure and  function  in  the  animal  economy,  that  render 
it  possible  to  judge  of  the  condition  of  one  part  of 
the  system  by  an  examination  of  another,  they  have 
found  by  long-continued  observation  and  experience 
that  the  quality  of  flesh,  ability  to  fatten  rapidly,  and 
constitutional  vigor,  are  uniformly  reflected  in  the 
peculiarities  of  the  coat  and  skin. 

As  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  describe  the 
slight  variations  in  "touch"  that  represent  marked 
differences  in  quality,  so  that  they  can  be  readily  rec- 
ognized, without  practical  illustrations  on  the  living 
animal,  we  can  only  give  a  general  outline  of  the  con- 
ditions to  be  observed,  leaving  the  student  to  gain  a 
knowledge  of  details  by  actual  experience.  The  first 
point  to  which  attention  should  be  directed  in  apply- 
ing the  test  of  "  touch "  is  the  hair,  which  we  have 
already  seen  is  correlated  with  the  true  horn  of  the 
horns  and  hoofs. 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         381 

A  fine,  long,  and  mossy  coat,  that  is  soft  tinder 
the  hand,  is  an  indication  of  a  good  feeder,  and  the 
fat,  as  a  rule,  will  be  well  distributed,  giving  a  good 
quality  of  fine-grained,  marbled  flesh.  If  the  coat  is 
short  and  fine,  the  animal  may  feed  well ;  but  there 
will  be  a  tendency  to  the  formation  of  internal  fat, 
instead  of  that  uniform  distribution  throughout  the 
system  that  is  desirable. 

A  harsh,  coarse,  wiry  coat  is  an  indication  of  poor 
feeding  quality  and  late  maturity. 

In  animals  of  good  quality  the  skin  is  soft  and 
elastic,  of  moderate  thickness — the  latter  point,  how- 
ever, varying  somewhat  with  the  breed — yielding 
readily  to  the  fingers  when  the  animal  is  in  moderate 
condition,  but  increasing  in  firmness  and  substance  as 
the  animal  "  ripens,"  from  the  ample  development  of 
fat  in  the  cellular  tissue. 

A  harsh,  hard,  and  unyielding  skin,  in  which  the 
capillary  circulation  is  always  impaired,  indicates  a 
slow  feeder  and  an  inferior  quality  of  flesh ;  while,  in 
the  opposite  extreme,  a  thin,  flabby  skin,  that  can  be 
readily  raised  in  loose  folds,  denotes  a  weak  consti- 
tution, and  soft,  oily  fat,  in  connection  with  coarse, 
stringy  flesh,  that  is  readily  recognized  on  the  block 
by  its  lack  of  firmness.  In  the  last-described  condi- 
tion the  skin  may  be  well  supplied  with  capillary  ves- 
sels ;  but  the  circulation  is  not  vigorous,  and  it  is  liable 
to  be  disturbed  by  the  slightest  exciting  causes.  The 
extremes  of  softness  and  harshness  represent  widely- 
different  conditions  of  the  circulation,  that  are  not 
compatible  with  a  vigorous  and  efficient  performance 
of  the  function  of  nutrition. 


382  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

The  principle  of  correlation  may  likewise  be  traced 
in  animals  that  are  used  for  work,  or  for  the  produc- 
tion of  milk  or  of  wool.1  In  these  cases,  however, 
the  relations  of  particular  parts  to  the  general  use- 
fulness of  the  animal  for  its  special  purpose,  aside 
from  the  indications  of  constitutional  vigor  that  are 
the  same  in  all  animals,  have  not  been  as  fully  de- 
termined as  they  have  in  the  meat-producing  breeds, 
so  that  there  are  many  details  of  the  organization 
that  need  more  extended  observation  and  study  with 
reference  to  the  applications  of  this  law  of  the  or- 
ganization. 

The  kind  and  amount  of  labor  that  can  best  be 
performed  by  an  animal  will  largely  depend  upon  the 
proportions  of  its  body  and  limbs. 

Temperament  and  constitutional  power  are  of 
great  importance  in  all  forms  of  labor,  as  they  deter- 
mine the  efficiency  of  the  power  applied;  but  they 
cannot  act  to  the  best  advantage  unless  the  organs  of 
locomotion  are  adapted  by  a  proper  proportion  of 
their  parts  to  the  work  they  are  required  to  do. 

The  bones  of  the  legs  form  a  series  of  levers  that 
are  moved  by  appropriate  muscles^  which  are  in  turn 
brought  into  activity  through  the  influence  of  the 
nervous  system.  If  the  proportions  and  relative  posi- 
tion of  these  levers  make  them  act  at  the  greatest 
disadvantage  in  the  performance  of  a  given  task,  the 
muscles  that  constitute  the  motive  power,  and  the 

1  Virgil  and  Columella  recognize  the  principle  of  correlation  when 
they  advise  that  a  ram  with  a •" black  or  spotted"  tongue  be  rejected, 
as  his  lambs  are  liable  to  be  spotted  with  black  (Virgil,  "  Gcorgics," 
book  iii.,  p.  80;  Columella's  "Husbandry,"  book  vii.,chap.  iii.,  p.  306). 


ANIMAL  FORM  AN  INDEX  OF  QUALITIES.         383 

nervous  system  that  brings  them  into  action,  will  be 
subjected  to  a  degree  of  tension  that  must  impair 
their  ability  to  sustain  continued  action,  and  diminish 
their  durability.  When  great  activity  or  a  high  rate 
of  speed  is  required,  the  upper  bones  of  the  legs 
should  be  long  and  the  lower  bones  comparatively 
short,  together  with  an  oblique  shoulder  that  allows 
the  greatest  range  of  motion  to  the  forearm. 

For  heavy-draught  purposes  the  shoulder  may  be 
more  upright,  as  strength  rather  than  freedom  of 
motion  is  required.  A  broad,  flat  limb,  with  well- 
developed  joints,  will  have  advantages  in  leverage 
over  one  that  is  round,  from  the  better  position  of 
the  tendons  that  transmit  the  power  supplied  by  the 
muscles. 

The  so-called  "  milk-veins "  of  the  dairy-cow  are 
superficial  blood-vessels,  that  represent  in  their  devel- 
opment the  general  condition  of  the  circulatory  appa- 
ratus throughout  the  system,  and  the  consequent  ten- 
dency to  the  secretion  of  milk.  The  "  escutcheon " 
of  Guenon,1  although  perhaps  not  so  infallible  an 
index  of  milking  qualities  as  it  hr.i  been  claimed  to 
be,  is  undoubtedly  correlated  with  the  milk-producing 
function,  and  may  therefore  be  of  use,  in  connection 
with  other  points,  in  estimating  the  probable  value  of 
an  animal  for  the  dairy.  From  the  complex  relations 
of  the  various  parts  of  the  living  animal,  it  will  be 
seen  that  any  single  indication  of  quality  cannot,  in 
all  cases,  be  assumed  to  represent  the  tendencies  of 
the  organization  as  a  whole,  for  the  obvious  reason 
that  the  dominance  of  some  other  condition  or  charac- 

1  Frequently  called  the  "milk-mirror"  by  other  writers. 


384:  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

ter  may  obscure  the  relations  existing  between  it  and 
the  organs  with  which  it  is  correlated. 

A  single  illustration  will  be  sufficient  to  explain 
the  apparent  exceptions  to  the  law  of  correlated  struct- 
ure and  function  that  are  frequently  observed.  A 
trotting  horse,  for  example,  with  an  extraordinary 
development  of  vital  power,  may  be  remarkable  for 
its  speed,  notwithstanding  a  disproportion  in  its  or- 
gans of  locomotion,  the  defect  in  its  structure  being 
overcome  by  an  excess  of  power.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  its  limbs  have  the  best  possible  proportions  for 
rapid  trotting,  and  its  vital  or  nervous  energy  is  defi- 
cient, it  may  fail  in  its  performance,  notwithstanding 
the  perfection  of  its  external  conformation. 

It  does  not  follow  from  cases  like  these  that  the 
proportions  of  the  limbs  are  a  matter  of  indifference 
in  the  development  of  a  high  rate  of  speed,  as  better 
results  would  undoubtedly  have  been  obtained  in  both 
cases  if  the  defect  had  not  been  present. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

SELECTION. 

THE  intelligent  breeder  will  make  a  rigorous  se- 
lection of  breeding-stock  in  accordance  with  a  well- 
defined  and  consistent  standard  of  excellence. 

"When  Lord  Rivers  was  asked  how  he  succeeded 
in  breeding  such  fine  greyhounds,  he  replied,  "  I 
breed  many,  and  hang  many." 

The  writer  asked  the  late  Edwin  Hammond  what 
proportion  of  the  rams  bred  by  himself  he  would  be 
willing  to  use  in  his  own  flock,  and  he  answered, 
promptly,  "  Not  one  in  three  hundred." 

Mr.  Dickson,  in  his  remarks  on  "  Selection,"  says, 
"  He  will  prove  himself  the  most  successful  breeder 
who  can  select  with  the  most  correct  judgment;"8 
and  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  success  of  the 
masters  of  the  art,  who  have  made  our  improved 
breeds  what  they  are,  has  been  largely  the  result  of 
the  extraordinary  judgment  and  skill  with  which  they 
made  their  selections. 

Aside  from  the  agencies  that  are  made  use  of  in 
improving  the  qualities  of  animals,  which  have  been 
pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  "  Variation,"  the  art  of 

1  Gardener's  Chronicle,  1853,  p.  45. 

8  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol.  vii.,  p.  248. 


386  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

breeding  may  in  fact  be  epitomized  in  the  one  word 
"  selection,"  which  involves  the  application  of  every 
established  principle  of  practice,  and  a  consideration 
of  the  influence  of  every  peculiarity  of  form. 

The  animals  selected  must  be  adapted  to  some 
well-defined  purpose  in  the  system  of  management, 
and  to  the  conditions  in  which  they  are  placed. 

The  principle  that  was  first  recognized  in  the 
selection  of  stock  was  the  adaptation  of  size  to  the 
physical  features  of  the  farm,  and  the  supply  of  feed. 
Columella  notices  the  difference  in  form  and  disposi- 
tion of  cattle  and  sheep  arising  from  the  conditions  in 
which  they  are  placed.1 

Fitzherbert,  having  in  mind  the  same  influence, 
says :  "  And  take  hede  where  thou  byeste  any  leane 
cattel  or  fat,  and  of  whom,  and  where  it  was  bred. 
For  if  thou  bye  out  of  a  better  grounde  than  thou 
haste  thy  selfe,  that  cattel  wyll  not  lyke  with 
the." ' 

Thomas  Hale,  who  wrote  before  the  marked  im- 
provement in  the  different  breeds  was  made,  says : 
"  The  husbandman  should  be  acquainted  with  the 
several  breeds,  that  he  may  suit  his  purchase  to  his 
land.  The  larger  kinds  are  bred  where  there  is  good 
nourishment,  and  they  require  the  same  where  they 
are  kept,  or  they  will  decline ;  the  poorer  and  smaller 
kinds,  which  are  used  to  hard  fare,  will  thrive  and 
fatten  upon  moderate  land. 

"  The  husbandman  is  to  remember  here  what  we 
have  said  of  trees :  they  never  thrive  if  transplanted 

1  Columella,  book  vi.,  chap,  i.,  p.  257,  chap,  ii.,  p.  304. 
8  " Boke  of  Husbandry"  (1532),  p.  46. 


SELECTION.  387 

out  of  a  rich  into  a  poor  soil :  the  same  holds  good 
of  cattle. 

"  The  husbandman  should  have  one  of  these  con- 
siderations in  view  in  stocking  his  land,  the  using 
them  principally  for  breed,  for  milk,  or  for  work; 
and  according  as  either  of  these  is  his  principal  aim 
he  is  to  make  his  purchase,  one  breed  being  fitter  for 
one  of  these  uses,  another  for  another. 

"  He  must  also  consider  the  richness  of  his  past- 
ures, that  he  may  suit  the  breed  to  that  also."  ' 

The  experience  of  a  Lammermuir  sheep-master,  as 
quoted  by  Mr.  Youatt,  furnishes  a  good  illustration 
of  the  loss  involved  from  lack  of  attention  to  the 
principle  under  discussion.  He  says  :  "  I  occupied  a 
farm  that  had  been  rented  by  our  family  for  nearly 
half  a  century. 

"  On  entering  it,  the  Cheviot  stock  was  the  object 
of  our  choice,  and,  so  long  as  we  continued  in  posses- 
sion of  this  breed,  everything  proceeded  with  consid- 
erable success ;  but  the  Dishley  sheep  came  into  fash- 
ion, and  we,  influenced  by  the  general  mania,  cleared 
our  farm  of  the  Cheviots,  and  procured  the  favorite 
stock.  Our  coarse,  lean  pastures,  however,  were  un- 
equal to  the  task  of  supporting  such  heavy-bodied 

1  "A  Compleat  Body  of  Husbandry"  (4  vols.),  second  edition,  1758, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  28. 

Donaldson,  in  his  "Agricultural  Biography,"  says:  "This  work 
was  advertised  by  John  Bell,  of  Edinburgh  ....  but  no  other  notice 
of  the  book  can  be  found.  .  .  .  The  'Bibliotheca  Britannica'  does 
not  contain  a  book  of  that  title  among  the  works  of  that  author.  The 
libraries  of  the  British  Museum  do  not  possess  any  book  of  that  title, 
and  Loudon's  catalogue  mentions  no  author  of  that  name."  The  quo- 
tation in  the  text  is  made  from  a  copy  of  the  work  in  my  library. 


388  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

sheep,  and  they  gradually  dwindled  away  into  less 
and  less  bulk;  each  generation  was  inferior  to  the 
preceding  one ;  and,  when  the  spring  was  severe,  sel- 
dom more  than  two-thirds  of  the  lambs  could  survive 
the  ravages  of  the  storm."  1 

Another  striking  example  of  the  same  kind  is 
related  by  Mr.  T.  Ellman,  who  says  :  "  A  remarkable 
case  in  point  occurred  in  France  some  years  ago, 
when  I  sent  some  Leicester  sheep  to  a  French  farmer. 
The  ewes,  sixty  in  number,  were  purchased  of  Mr. 
Golding,  of  Beddington;  the  rams,  four  yearlings, 
from  Sir  C.  Knightly. 

"  The  wool  of  these  sheep  was  enormously  heavy ; 
the  ewes  cut  ten  pounds  each,  the  rams  fourteen 
pounds  each.  These  sheep  being  managed  after  the 
fashion  of  the  Normans,  the  wool  grew  less  every 
year,  that  of  their  progeny  still  lighter.  In  six  years 
they  clipped  only  three  pounds  of  very  bad  wool; 
the  fourth  generation  became  long-legged,  their 
bodies  differing  from  the  original  stock,  but  resem- 
bling the  native-bred  Norman  sheep,  with  which  they 
had  no  relationship.  After  this  failure  a  South- 
down ram  was  used,  and  the  stock  improved.  Yet 
they  soon  mingled  with  the  common  flocks  of  the 
country,  it  being  found  impossible  to  maintain  these 
Leicester  sheep  upon  poor  soils  with  bad  manage- 
ment." 3 

"With  reference  to  size,  it  will,  without  doubt,  be 
best  to  follow  the  advice  of  the  author  of  the  "  Keport 

1  "  On  the  Breeding  of  Cheviot  and  Black-faced  Sheep,  by  a  Lam- 
mermuir  Farmer,"  p.  66  ;  quoted  in  Youatt  on  "Sheep,"  p.  325. 
*  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  1866,  p.  406. 


SELECTION.  389 

on  the  Agriculture  of  Argyleshire,"  *  and  make  selec- 
tions of  animals  that  are  rather  under  than  over  the 
required  standard,  as  there  will  then  be  a  reasonable 
prospect  of  improvement,  and  a  better  profit  from 
liberal  feeding. 

The  larger  breeds,  on  farms  that  are  naturally  pro- 
ductive, have,  however,  in  many  instances  proved  a 
failure,  from  defects  in  the  system  of  management. 
It  cannot,  with  reason,  be  expected  that  the  larger 
improved  breeds  will  return  a  satisfactory  profit  when 
subjected  to  the  same  treatment  that  the  common 
stock  receives  on  the  average  farms  of  the  country ; 
and  it  is  also  quite  certain  that  the  effects  of  such 
management  will  be  manifest  in  a  rapid  deterioration 
in  their  most  valuable  characteristics. 

The  high  development  of  special  qualities  -in  our 
improved  breeds,  which  have  been  obtained,  as  we 
have  shown,  by  artificial  treatment,  has  unavoidably 
diminished  their  hardiness,  and  unfitted  them  to  with- 
stand the  effects  of  privation  and  exposure. 

In  the  process  of  "  natural  selection  "  that  prevails 
among  wild  species,  those  that  are  feeble  or  unhealthy 
die  from  exposure,  and  the  masters  of  the  herd  attain 
their  position  by  their  superior  strength  and  powers 
of  endurance.  The  standard  of  excellence  in  such 
cases  is  constitutional  stamina  and  power,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  deterioration  are  strictly  excluded. 

1  "  Survey  of  Argyleshire,"  p.  242.  See  also  on  the  same  subject 
Low's  "  Domestic  Animals,"  p.  264 ;  Lawrence  on  "  Cattle,"  p.  27  ; 
Coventry's  "Agriculture,"  p.  182;  "Complete  Grazier"  (sixth  edi- 
tion), p.  36  ;  "  Code  of  Agriculture,"  by  Sinclair,  pp.  96-100  ;  "  Survey 
of  Middlesex,"  p.  407 ;  Cline  on  "  Breeding  and  Form,"  p.  12. 


390  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

In  the  improvement  of  all  domesticated  varieties 
that  are  not  intended  for  work,  selections  are  made  on 
a  different  basis,  that  is  not  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  greatest  constitutional  vigor.  Take  the 
meat-producing  breeds,  for  example,  and  examine  care- 
fully the  tendencies  of  the  process  of  improvement. 
Early  maturity  is  required,  and  a  liberal  system  of 
feeding  is  practised ;  the  wants  of  the  animal  are  anti- 
cipated, and  it  is  protected  from  the  inclemencies  of 
the  seasons.  The  animal  must  have  a  quiet  disposi- 
tion to  be  a  good  feeder,  and  the  treatment  it  receives 
tends  to  promote  a  habit  of  "  masterly  inactivity." 

The  best  quality  of  flesh  and  a  large  proportion  of 
choice  parts  are  desirable,  and  a  certain  refinement  of 
the  system  is  the  result  of  the  efforts  to  obtain  them. 

Thus,  step  by  step  as  we  trace  the  process  of  im- 
provement, we  find  the  required  conditions  are  unfa- 
vorable to  the  development  or  retention  of  constitu- 
tional vigor. 

It  is  asserted  by  Prof.  Tanner  that,  in  the  im- 
proved breeds,  "  the  lungs  and  liver  are  found  to  be 
considerably  reduced  in  size  when  compared  with 
those  possessed  by  animals  having  perfect  liberty  ; "  x 
and  this  he  attributes  to  the  lack  of  active  exercise, 
which  is  required  for  the  symmetrical  development  of 
the  system. 

The  breeder  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  tendency 
to  undesirable  variations  in  making  his  selections,  or 
the  defects  of  his  stock  may  impair  or  even  overbal- 
ance the  advantages  arising  from  their  good  qualities. 

1  "  Transactions  of  the  Highland  Agricultural  Society,"  1859-'61,  p. 
322. 


SELECTION.  391 

The  diminution  of  hardiness  that  results  from  the 
development  of  the  best  feeding  quality  must  not  be 
allowed  to  proceed  so  far  as  to  become  a  predisposing 
cause  of  disease. 

Any  inherited  predisposition  to  disease  must  in  like 
manner  be  carefully  avoided,  and  the  best  sanitary  con- 
ditions should  prevail  in  the  system  of  management. 

The  milking  qualities  of  the  meat-producing 
breeds  have  been  too  generally  neglected,  and  many 
breeders  have  been  led  to  believe  that  the  tendency  to 
lay  on  fat  is  directly  antagonistic  to  the  secretion  of 
milk;  and  that  there  is  an  incompatibility  in  the 
active  exercise  of  these  two  functions.  This  extreme 
view  of  tlie  relations  of  the  two  functions  is  based 
upon  certain  well-ascertained  facts,  that  do  not,  how- 
ever, represent  the  whole  truth. 

If  the  attention  of  the  breeder  is  directed  exclu- 
sively to  the  development  of  either  of  these  functions, 
the  effect  will  be  to  diminish  the  activity  of  the  other ; 
and  it  is  also  well  known  that  the  peculiarities  of 
form  that  indicate  the  best  feeding  quality  are  not  the 
same  as  those  obtained  when  the  production  of  milk 
is  the  leading  or  sole  object,  the  natural  correlations 
of  form  and  function  in  the  two  cases  being  quite 
different. 

These  facts  do  not,  however,  warrant  the  assump- 
tion that  the  two  qualities,  in  a  high  degree  of  excel- 
lence, cannot  be  combined  in  the  same  animal.  The 
possibility  of  such  a  combination  of  characters  has 
been  abundantly  demonstrated  by  experience.  Quite 
a  number  of  animals,  representing  several  different 
breeds  and  their  grades,  have  come  under  my  observa- 


392  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

tion,  in  which  good  feeding  qualities  were  associated 
with  more  than  average  excellence  for  the  purposes 
of  the  dairy ;  and  there  are  many  similar  instances  on 
record. 

"Where  a  combination  of  the  two  qualities  is  the 
object,  one  of  them  should  be  made  the  leading  or 
dominant  character,  by  selections,  with  reference  to 
form,  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  correlation ;  while 
the  other  or  secondary  quality  is  secured  through  the 
influence  of  modified  habits,  that  are  ingrafted,  as  it 
were,  upon  the  typical  characteristics  of  the  leading 
quality.  For  example,  if  the  production  of  meat  is 
the  leading  object,  selections  should  be  made  to  secure 
the  form  and  proportions  that  experience  has  shown 
to  be  the  best  adapted  to  that  particular  purpose; 
while  the  abundant  secretion  of  milk,  which  is  the 
secondary  object,  may  be  developed  as  a  habit  of  the 
system,  notwithstanding  the  bias  of  the  organization, 
from  peculiarities  of  form,  to  the  production  of  flesh. 

A  different  typical  form  will  be  desirable  when 
milk  is  the  leading  object.  But  with  it  the  feeding 
quality  may  be  developed  to  a  considerable  extent  by 
an  abundant  supply  of  feed,  without  detracting  from 
the  value  of  the  animal  for  the  purposes  of  the  dairy. 
In  both  of  these  typical  forms,  in  which  the  com- 
bined qualities  are  developed,  the  energies  of  the  sys- 
tem may  be  largely  devoted  to  the  secretion  of  milk 
during  the  period  of  lactation,  and  at  other  times  to 
the  production  of  flesh,  so  that  there  is  an  alternation 
in  the  exercise  of  the  two  functions  that  adds  to  their 
efficiency,  from  the  concentration  of  the  powers  of 
assimilation  upon  a  single  function. 


SELECTION.  393 

The  combination  of  two  qualities  that  are  corre- 
lated with  opposite  peculiarities  of  form  does  not  dis- 
prove the  law  of  correlation,  or  diminish  the  practical 
value  of  its  application.  The  physiological  tendencies 
of  the  system,  arising  from  correlations  of  form  and 
function,  are  important  aids  to  the  breeder  in  devel- 
oping a  single  character  or  quality  in  harmony  with 
them ;  but  he  may  nevertheless  succeed  in  developing 
and  retaining  certain  qualities,  that  are  not  strictly  in 
harmony  with  the  peculiarities  of  form,  through  the 
superior  influence  of  modified  habits  and  judicious 
selection. 

Sir  John  Sebright  recognizes  this  principle  when 
he  says :  "  It  is  well  known  that  a  particular  forma- 
tion generally  indicates  a  disposition  to  get  fat,  in  all 
sorts  of  animals ;  but  this  rule  is  not  universal,  for  we 
sometimes  see  animals  of  the  most  approved  forms 
who  are  slow  feeder s,  and  whose  flesh  is  of  a  bad  qual- 
ity, which  the  graziers  easily  ascertain  by  the  touch" * 

Such  cases  are  undoubtedly  rare ;  but  their  occa- 
sional occurrence  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  law  of 
correlation  may  become  latent  in  particular  details 
through  a  preponderance  of  other  influences. 

From  the  plasticity  of  the  animal  organization, 
and  its  susceptibility  to  variation  under  the  influence 
of  surrounding  conditions  and  methods  of  manage- 
ment, the  breeder  is  enabled  to  obtain  not  only  such 
modifications  of  any  single  characters  as  he  may  de- 
sire, but  a  combination  of  qualities  which  at  first  sight 
might  appear  to  be  incompatible. 

The  relation  of  the  function  of  reproduction  to  the 

»"Artof  Breeding,"  p.  21. 


394  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

secretion  of  milk,  that  has  already  been  noticed,  should 
not  be  overlooked  in  this  connection,  as  an  improve- 
ment in  the  exercise  of  one  of  these  functions  may 
have  a  tendency  to  increase  the  activity  of  the  other. 
It  is  frequently  more  difficult  to  avoid  defects  than 
to  secure  a  predominance  of  desirable  qualities.  Sir 
John  Sebright  very  truly  says :  "  We  must  observe 
the  smallest  tendency  to  imperfection  in  our  stock  the 
moment  it  appears,  so  as  to  be  able  to  counteract  it 
before  it  becomes  a  defect,  as  a  rope-dancer,  to  pre- 
serve his  equilibrium,  must  correct  the  balance  before 
it  is  gone  too  far,  and  then  not  by  such  a  motion  as 
will  incline  it  too  much  to  the  opposite  side.  The 
breeder's  success  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  degree 
in  which  he  may  happen  to  possess  this  particular 
talent."  l 

The  impaired  fecundity  of  certain  families  in  the 
improved  breeds  may  be  attributed  to  the  neglect  of 
this  principle. 

As  the  fecundity  of  animals  is  determined  to  a 
great  extent  by  heredity,  selections  from  prolific  fami- 
lies will  be  found  advantageous,  while  the  opposite 
practice  will  finally  result  in  disappointment. 

Animals  having  the  same  constitutional  tenden- 
cies, and  kept  under  the  same  artificial  conditions, 
may  fail  to  breed  when  coupled  together ;  but,  as  they 
prove  fertile  when  coupled  with  animals  of  other 
families,  the  procreative  function  has  not  been  lost, 
but  made  latent  by  conditions  unfavorable  to  its  action. 

It  has  been  suggested  by  Sir  John  Sebright a  that 

1  "  Art  of  Breeding,"  p.  6. 

2  Ibid.,  pp.  16,  17  ;  "American  Cattle,"  by  R.  L.  Allen,  p.  206. 


SELECTION.  395 

it  would  be  desirable  to  separate  closely-related  ani- 
mals, and  subject  them  to  different  conditions  of  food 
and  climate,  that  their  development  in  all  particulars 
should  not  be  the  same.  A  tendency  to  a  loss  of  fe- 
cundity may  be  corrected  by  this  method;  but  the 
conditions  to  which  the  animals  are  subjected  should 
not  differ  so  widely  as  to  destroy  the  characteristics 
of  the  family  that  it  is  desirable  to  retain. 

A  defective  performance  of  the  function  of  repro- 
duction may  frequently  be  corrected  by  suitable  selec- 
tions within  the  family,  without  resorting  to  a  change 
of  conditions  or  an  infusion  of  other  blood. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
latent  function  is  made  active,  let  us  take  the  case  of 
two  animals,  kept  under  the  same  conditions,  that  are 
closely  related,  so  that  their  dominant  characteristics 
are  essentially  the  same. 

The  male  may  exhibit  the  family  defect  of  a  ten- 
dency to  impaired  fecundity ;  while  the  female,  with 
the  same  general  bias  of  the  system,  may  be  a  good 
milker. 

When  bred  together,  the  acquired  quality  of  se- 
creting an  abundant  supply  of  milk  may  supplement 
the  conditions  that  give  rise  to  the  family  defect,  and 
restore  the  balance  of  the  organization,  so  that  the 
function  that  was  comparatively  latent  in  the  parents 
may  become  active  in  their  offspring. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  Duke  of  Airdrie  (12730) 
(see  Diagram  2)  owes  his  superiority  as  a  sire  to  char- 
acters inherited  in  accordance  with  this  principle. 

Duke  of  Gloster  (11382),  his  sire,  was  not  remark- 
ably prolific,  and  there  was  a  marked  peculiarity  in 


396  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BPvEEDING. 

the  character  of  his  offspring :  the  bulls,  which  were 
uniformly  good,  seemed  to  inherit  the  qualities  of 
their  grandsire,  Grand  Duke  (10284),  a  superior  ani- 
mal ;  while  the  heifers,  which  were  not  so  good,  re- 
sembled their  grandam.  Duchess  of  Athol,  the  dam 
of  Duke  of  Airdrie  (12730),  was  a  superior  animal, 
and  an  excellent  breeder. 

Duke  of  Airdrie  proved  a  good  getter  of  both 
males  and  females,  the  defects  of  his  sire  having  been 
apparently  supplemented  by  the  good  qualities  of  his 
dam,  although  they  were  closely  related,  so  that  his 
inherited  qualities  were  fully  in  equilibrium. 

From  the  practical  difficulty  of  making  selections 
with  reference  to  peculiarities  that  would  properly 
supplement  each  other,  it  has  been  proposed  to  select 
animals  that  resemble  each  other  closely  in  the  essen- 
tial or  constant  characters  of  the  family,  but  that  differ 
in  the  variable  or  non-essential  characters :  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  Short-Horns  a  difference  in  the  color 
of  the  parents,  that  are  alike  in  other  particulars,  may 
aid  in  restoring  an  impaired  condition  of  the  procrea- 
tive  functions  by  supplementing  the  divergent  char- 
acters. 

"  Regard  should  not  only  be  paid  to  the  qualities 
apparent  in  animals  selected  for  breeding,  but  to  those 
which  have  prevailed  in  the  race  from  which  they  are 
descended,  as  they  will  always  show  themselves,  sooner 
or  later,  in  the  progeny ;  it  is  for  this  reason  that  we 
should  not  breed  from  an  animal,  however  excellent, 
unless  we  can  ascertain  it  to  be  what  is  called  well 
fired,  that  is,  descended  from  a  race  of  ancestors  who 
have,  through  several  generations,  possessed  in  a 


SELECTION.  397 

high  degree  the  properties  which  it  is  our  object  to 
obtain."  l 

The  importance  of  pedigree  in  the  study  of  ances- 
tral characters  need  only  be  noticed  in  this  connection, 
as  it  has  been  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapters. 

In  order  to  avoid  any  undesirable  atavic  tendency, 
Sir  John  Sebright  recommends  as  an  additional  pre- 
caution to  "  try  the  young  males  with  a  few  females, 
the  quality  of  whose  produce  has  been  already  ascer- 
tained ;  by  this  means  we  shall  know  the  sort  of  stock 
they  get,  and  the  description  of  females  to  which  they 
are  best  adapted." 2 

As  the  male,  from  the  number  of  his  progeny,  has 
a  preponderating  influence  in  determining  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  flock  or  herd,  the  greatest  care  should 
be  exercised  in  his  selection. 

He  should  be  more  highly  bred  than  the  females 
with  which  he  is  coupled,  to  insure  prepotency  in  the 
transmission  of  his  qualities,  and  his  merits  as  an  indi- 
vidual should  add  to  the  reputation  of  the  long  line 
of  ancestry  from  which  he  is  descended. 

Breeders  of  pure-bred  stock  are  aware  of  the  im- 
portance of  securing  males  of  extraordinary  excellence 
in  every  respect,  and  high  prices  are  accordingly  paid 
for  the  best  representatives  of  favorite  families. 

Those  who  use  males  of  their  own  breeding  select 

1  "Art  of  Breeding,"  p.  7. 

2  Loc.  cit.,  p.  7.     (See  also  Sinclair's  "  Code  of  Agriculture,"  p.  98.) 
According  to  Arthur  Young,  it  was  the  practice  of  the  late  Duke  of 

Bedford  to  place  "  every  ram  with  the  lambs  got  by  him  the  preceding 
year,  in  distinct  pens,  that  he  might  not  only  examine  the  ram  himself, 
but  also  his  progeny,  before  he  determined  what  ewes  to  draw  off  for 
him"  ("Farmer's  Calendar,"  p.  668). 


398  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

them  from  a  family  that  is  more  highly  bred  than  the 
rest  of  their  stock. 

It  seems  to  be  the  prevailing  opinion  that  almost 
any  pure-bred  male  will  answer  the  purpose  of  those 
who  are  breeding  grades,  and  comparatively  few  think 
of  making  their  selection  in  accordance  with  any  defi- 
nite system. 

In  the  improvement  of  grade-stock  the  breeder 
should  have  clearly-defined  ideas  of  the  kind  of  ani- 
mal he  would  produce,  and  the  rules  of  the  art  that 
have  been  established  by  the  breeders  of  pure-bred 
animals  will  be  found  the  safest  guides  in  his  practice. 

High-bred  males,  of  the  particular  type  it  is  pro- 
posed to  establish,  will  impress  their  own  characteris- 
tics upon  their  offspring  with  greater  certainty  and 
uniformity  than  those  that,  although  of  pure  blood, 
have  been  bred  from  an  admixture  of  a  variety  of 
elements  without  reference  to  any  definite  standard. 

Even  for  the  purpose  of  improving  grades  it  will 
be  found  more  profitable  to  select  a  high-bred  animal 
of  superior  merit  than  to  use  one  that  cost  half  the 
money,  whose  qualities  are  not  so  well  defined. 

As  the  dangers  of  in-and-in  breeding  are  not  so 
great  in  breeding  grades  (a  pure-bred  sire  always  being 
used)  as  in  breeding  pure-bred  stock,  a  well-bred  male 
that  is  free  from  defects  may  be  used  upon  his  own 
get  with  advantage,  while  a  similar  practice  with  an 
inferior  animal  would  not  be  desirable.  In  some  of 
the  best  grade-herds  that  have  come  under  my  obser- 
vation, in-and-in  breeding  (on  the  part  of  the  sire)  has 
been  practised  for  several  generations  without  any 
indications  of  unfavorable  results.  The  sires  in  these 


SELECTION.  399 

cases  have  been  animals  of  strong  constitution,  and 
apparently  free  from  inherited  predisposition  to  dis- 
ease. 

In  the  improvement  of  grades,  as  well  as  pure-bred 
animals,  the  selection  of  breeding-stock  must  go  hand- 
in-hand  with  a  judicious  system  of  feeding  and  man- 
agement, as  the  artificial  characters  which  are  im- 
pressed by  the  male  upon  his  offspring  can  only  be 
retained  through  the  influence  of  essentially  the  same 
conditions  that  originally  produced  them. 


CHAPTEE  XVIII. 

PERIOD    OF    GESTATION. 

THE  duration  of  the  period  of  gestation  in  mam- 
mals is  apparently  determined  by  various  causes  that 
we  are  as  yet,  from  the  obscurity  of  their  action,  un- 
able to  define. 

That  it  bears  some  relation  to  the  size  of  the  ani- 
mal is  shown  by  the  following  instances,  which  have 
been  compiled  from  various  sources ;  *  and  Mr.  Darwin 
states  that  it  has  been  observed  in  Germany  that  "  the 
period  of  gestation  is  longer  in  large-sized  than  in 
small-sized  breeds  of  cattle." 2 

The  period  of  gestation  is  approximately  as  fol- 
lows :  Elephant,  twenty  to  twenty-three  months ; 
giraffe,  fourteen  months ;  dromedary,  twelve  months ; 
buffalo,  different  varieties,  from  ten  to  twelve  months ; 
ass,  twelve  months ;  mare,  eleven  months ;  cow,  two 
hundred  and  eighty-five  days ;  bear,  six  months ;  rein- 

1  Van  Der  Hoeven's  "  Zoology,"  vol.  ii. ;  "  ^Economische  ncugikund 
Verhandl,"  quoted  in  Johnson's  "  Farmer's  Cyclopaedia,"  and  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Agriculture,  vol..x.,  p.  287;  Dunglison's  "Human.  Physiol- 
ogy;" Johnson's  "  Cyclopaedia,"  article  "Gestation,"  by  Dr.  E.  R. 
Peaslee;  "Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  article  "Animal  Kingdom,"  by 
Prof.  Wilson. 

9  "Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  387. 


PERIOD  OF  GESTATION.  401 

deer,  eight  months ;  monkeys,  seven  months ;  sheep 
and  goat,  five  months;  sow,  four  months;  beaver, 
four  months ;  lion,  one  hundred  and  eight  days ;  puma, 
seventy-nine  days;  dog,  fox,  and  wolf,  sixty-two  to 
sixty-three  days ;  cat,  fifty  days ;  rabbit,  thirty  days  ; 
squirrel  and  rat,  twenty-eight  days ;  Guinea-pig,  twenty- 
one  days. 

A  similar  relation  may  be  traced  in  the  period  of 
incubation  in  birds,  which  is  as  follows :  Turkey, 
twenty-six  to  thirty  days ;  Guinea-hen,  twenty-five  to 
twenty-six  days ;  pea-hen,  twenty-eight  to  thirty  days ; 
ducks,  twenty-five  to  thirty-two  days ;  geese,  twenty- 
seven  to  thirty-three  days ;  hens,  nineteen  to  twenty- 
four  days,  or  an  average  of  twenty-one ;  pigeons,  six- 
teen to  twenty  days;  canary-birds,  thirteen  to  four- 
teen days.  Mr.  Wright  remarks  that  "  cold  weather, 
or  a  prevailing  east  wind,  will  lengthen  the  time  a 
day  or  more,  while  warm  weather  and  an  attentive 
sitter  will  hasten  it ;  stale  eggs  also  hatch  later  than 
fresh."1 

He  also  states  that  the  small  breeds  require  less 
time  than  the  large  breeds ;  "  Hamburgs  generally 
hatch  at  the  expiration  of  the  twentieth  day,  and 
Game  Bantams  often  even  on  the  nineteenth."  Man- 
darin and  Wood  ducks  "  usually  hatch  in  about  twen- 
ty-five days ;  but  something  depends  upon  whether  the 
eggs  are  set  under  hens  which,  owing  to  the  greater 
heat  of  their  bodies  (at  least  we  suppose  so,  reason- 
ing generally),  hatch  from  one  to  two  days  earlier 
than  if  the  same  eggs  are  set  under  their  natural 
parent."  * 

1  "  Book  of  Poultry,"  p.  49.  2  Loc.  cit.,  p.  556. 

18 


402  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

The  period  of  incubation  is  said  to  be  shortened 
when  hens'  and  ducks'  eggs  are  set  under  a  turkey.1 

The  following  statistics  will  indicate  the  variations 
that  are  liable  to  occur  in  the  period  of  gestation  of 
different  animals.  M.  Tessier,  who  continued  his  ob- 
servations for  forty  years,3  has  made  the  most  valuable 
collection  of  facts  in  relation  to  this  subject,  which 
will  be  quoted  under  their  appropriate  heads. 

According  to  Youatt,  the  average  period  of  ges- 
tation in  the  mare  is  eleven  months,  but  it  may  be 
diminished  five  weeks  or  extended  six  weeks.8 

Of  582  mares  reported  by  M.  Tessier,  the  shortest 
period  was  287  days,  the  longest  419,  and  the  average 
330  days.4 

M.  Gayot  has  recorded  the  period  of  gestation  for 
twenty-five  mares,  the  shortest  period  being  324  days, 
the  longest  367  days,  and  a  mean  of  343  days.6 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  range  of  variation  is 
less  in  the  cases  observed  by  M.  Gayot,  while  the 
average  period  exceeds  that  of  M.  Tessier's  observa- 
tion thirteen  days.  Of  575  cows  observed  by  M. 
Tessier — 

21  calved  between  the  240th  and  270th  days,  the  mean  time 

being  259  days. 
544  calved  between  the  270th  and  299th  days,  the  mean  time 

being  282  days. 

1  "Farmer's  Cyclopaedia,"  p.  662;  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agricult- 
ure, vol.  x.,  p.  287. 

8  Carpenter's  "  Human  Physiology,"  p.  983. 

3  "  The  Horse,"  p.  222. 

4  Johnson's  "  Farmer's  Cyclopaedia,"  p.  562 ;  "  Encyclopedic  pra- 
tique de  1'Agriculteur,"  vol.  viii.,  p.  298. 

6  Ibid. 


PERIOD  OF  GESTATION. 


403 


10  calved  between  the  299th  and  321st  days,  the  mean  time 
being  303  days.1 

The  extremes  here  given  were  not  changed  when 
the  number  observed  was  extended  to  1,131  animals, 
but  the  results  as  to  the  average  are  not  stated.8 

Earl  Spencer  has  recorded  the  period  of  gestation 
in  Y64  cows  with  the  following  result :  Least  period, 
220  days ;  mean,  285  days ;  longest  period,  313  days. 
But  he  remarks  that  he  has  "  not  been  able  to  rear 
any  calf  produced  at  an  earlier  period  than  242  days."  * 

As  the  table  published  by  Earl  Spencer  is  of  inter- 
est in  many  particulars,  it  is  copied  in  full : 


Number  of  Days 
of  Gestation. 

Cows. 

Cow- 
Calves. 

Bull- 
Calves. 

Twin  Cow- 
Calvef. 

Twin  Bull- 
Calvei. 

Twin  Cow 
and  Bull 

Calvi'8. 

220 

1 

2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
2 
2 
8 
1 
1 
2 
1 
2 
2 
5 
6 
8 
8 

'i 

'i 
i 

'2 

'i 
i 

'i 

'i 
i 

'2 

*2 
5 

1 

2 

1 

'i 
i 

'i 

'2 

'2 
i 

'2 
i 

2 

1 
1 
2 

'i 

1 
1 
1 
1 

i 

226 

233  

234 

285  

239  .   . 

242 

245 

246 

248  

250    

252 

268  

254  

255 

25T  

258  

259 

262  

263        ... 

266s  

268  

269           .   .  . 

270  

271     . 

272 

273  

"  British  Husbandry,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  438 ;  "  The  Complete  Grazier," 
p.  47. 

5  Youatt  on  «  Cattle,"  p.  527. 

3  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  i.,  pp.  166,  167. 


404 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 


Number  of  Days 
of  Gestation. 

Cows. 

Cow- 

Calvci. 

Bull- 

Calvei. 

Twin  Cow- 
Calves. 

Twin  Bull- 
Calves. 

Twin  Cow 
and  Bull 
Calves. 

2T4  
275 

5 
5 
15 
14 
18 
82 
85 
89 
47 
54 
66 
74 
60 
52 
42 
45 
23 
81 
16 
10 
8 
7 
6 
2 
1 
1 
1 
3 
1 
1 

'2 
7 
10 
11 
16 
15 
20 
26 
80 
83 
29 
22 
25 
18 
20 
10 
9 
5 
1 
1 

2 
1 

'i 
i 

8 
1 
1 

5 
2 
6 
2 
4 
11 
20 
18 
20 
24 
83 
43 
88 
27 
28 
25 
18 

11 

9 
7 
4 
4 
1 
1 

i 

1 

276. 

277 

278  

279  

280 

281  
282  

283  

284 

285  

286    

287 

288  

289    

290 

291  

292    

293 

294  

295    

296 

297  

299  

804 

805.  .  . 

806.  . 

807 

818 

L.  F.  Allen  reports  the  period  of  gestation  in  fifty 
cows  for  a  single  year  as  follows:  Shortest  period, 
268  days ;  mean,  284  days ;  and  longest  period,  291 
days.1 

These  cows  were  "  Short-Horns,  Heref ords,  Dev- 
ons,  and  their  'grades,  and  common  ones ; "  but  no 
difference  was  noticed  that  could  be  attributed  to  the 
breed. 

C.  N.  Bement 2  reports  the  period  of  gestation  for 
five  years  in  his  herd  of  cows,  consisting  of  "Durham, 
Devon,  Hereford,  Ayrshires,  and  grades,"  which  will 
be  found  in  the  following  table : 

1  "  American  Cattle,"  p.  253. 
8  The  Cultivator,  1846,  p.  207. 


PERIOD  OF  GESTATION. 


405 


YEAR. 

No.  of 
Cows. 

COW  CALVES. 

BULL  CALVES. 

No. 

8 

6 
8 
4 
5 

26 

Shortest 
Period. 

Longest 
Period. 

Average 
Period. 

No. 

Shortest 
Period. 

Longest 
Period. 

Average 
Period. 

1839  
1840  

14 
13 
11 
13 
11 

'2is 

277 
280 
276 

'836 
292 
286 
286 

284 
278 
2S6 

284 
282 

11 

7 
3 
9 
6 

36 

'278 
284 
281 
277 

'289 
299 
294 
290 

280 
299 
293 
2S7 
282 

1841     . 

1842  

1843  

Total.... 

62 

.... 

.... 

283 

.... 

288 

Mr.  Bement  had  "  doubts  as  to  the  correctness " 
of  the  shortest  period  given — 213  days — which  is  evi- 
dently an  error,  as  he  has  in  no  other  instance  ob- 
served a  period  "  below  260  days." 

The  minimum  of  Mr.  Bement's  observations,  if 
not  an  error,  must  be  considered  decidedly  premature. 

In  M.  Tessier's  observations  on  sheep,1  of  912 
ewes — 

140  lambed  between  the  146th  and  the  150th  days;  mean  time, 

148  days. 
676  lambed  between  the  150th  and  the  154th  days ;  mean  time, 

152  days. 
96  lambed  between  the  154th  and  the  161st  days;  mean  time, 

157  days. 

In  420  ewes  under  the  observation  of  M.  Magne, 
at  Alf  ort,  the  period  of  gestation  was — 


149  days  for 

148  "  " 

150  "  " 
147  "  " 

151  "  u 

146  "  " 

152  •*  " 


80 
68 
55 
55 
49 
30 
23 


1  "  The  Complete  Grazier,"  p.  238 ;  "  British  Husbandry,"  vol.  ii. 
p.  457 ;  Youatt  on  "  Sheep,"  p.  496. 


406  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

145  days  for  .....          22 

144     "      "  .            .            .            .            .15 

153  "      "  .            .            .            .          13 

154  "      " 7 

156     "      u 3 

143     "" 2 

The  extremes  being  143  and  156  days,  and  tlie 
entire  period  in  three-fifths  of  the  flock  from  147  to 
150  days.1 

In  1814  and  1815  M.  Morel  de  Vinde  recorded 
the  period  of  gestation  in  462  ewes  as  follows  : 

153  days  in 118 

152  "     " 97 

151  "     "  .            .            .            .            .     81 

150  "     "  .            .            .             .    .        .          50 

164  ""  42 

149  "     "  .            .            .            .            .          31 

155  "     "  .  .            .            .            .     18 
148  "     "  .            .            .            .            7 

156  "    "  .  .            .            .            .6 

157  "    " 5 

147  "    u  .            .            .            .            .4 

14G  "     "  .            .            .            .            3 

In  more  than  three-fifths  of  these  ewes  the  dura- 
tion of  gestation  was  from  151  to  153  days,  or  from 
three  to  four  days  longer  than  in  the  cases  observed 
by  M.  Magne,  and  the  extreme  periods — 146  and  157 
days — are  likewise  more  prolonged. 

These  variations  in  the  length  of  the  period  in  the 
two  flocks  may  be  attributed  to  a  difference  in  breed, 
or  in  the  system  of  management,  or  possibly  to  local 
influences.8 

1  "  Encyclopedic  pratique  de  PAgriculteur,"  tome  x.,  p.  483. 
8  Ibid. 


PERIOD  OF  GESTATION.  407 

Mr.  Darwin  states,1  on  the  authority  of  Nathusius, 
"  that  merino  and  Southdown  sheep,  when  both  have 
long  been  kept  under  exactly  the  same  conditions, 
differ  in  the  average  period  of  gestation,  as  seen  in 
the  following  table : 

Merinos      ,,          i  i  *  .     150.3  days. 

Southdowns     ..."         .  .  .          144.2     " 

Half-bred  merino  and  Southdown  .     146.3     " 
Three-fourths  blood  of  Southdowns  .          145.5     " 

Seven-eighths    "      "  "  .     144.2     " 

Tlie  average  period  of  gestation  in  swine  is  about 
sixteen  weeks.  The  extremes  observed  by  M.  Tessier 
in  twenty-five  sows  were  109  and  123  days ; 2  and  Mr. 
Fox  has  reported  "  ten  carefully-recorded  cases  with 
well-bred  pigs  in  which  the  period  varied  from  101 
to  116  days.3. 

M.  Tessier  "  observes  that  the  extent  of  gestation 
is  in  many  species  extremely  various,  and  that  its  pro- 
longation does  not  seem  to  depend  upon  the  age  or 
constitution  of  the  female,  or  upon  the  diet,  breed,  or 
season,  or,  in  short,  upon  any  known  cause."  ' 

It  is,  however,  at  least  probable  that  the  period  of 
gestation  is  shorter  in  the  breeds  that  mature  early, 
and  this  may  be  the  explanation  of  the  difference 

1  "Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p.  123. 

8  Darwin,  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p. 
95  ;  Youatt  on  "  The  Hog,"  p.  154. 

In  "  The  Complete  Grazier,"  p.  299,  and  in  "  British  Husbandry," 
vol.  ii.,  p.  511,  the  extremes  observed  by  M.  Tessier  are  stated  at  109 
and  143  days ;  but  this  is  evidently  an  error. 

3  "  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p.  95. 

4  "British  Husbandry,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  511 ;  "The  Complete  Grazier," 
p.  299. 


408  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

observed  in  merino  and  Southdown  sheep  that  has 
been  noticed. 

In  swine,  "  according  to  Nathusius,  the  period  is 
shortest  in  the  races  which  come  early  to  maturity ; 
but  in  these  latter  the  course  of  development  does  not 
appear  to  be  actually  shortened,  for  the  young  animal 
is  born,  judging  from  the  state  of  the  skull,  less  fully 
developed  or  in  a  more  embryonic  condition  than  in 
the  case  of  common  swine,  which  arrive  at  maturity 
at  a  later  age.1 

It  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  that  the  period 
of  gestation  is  longer  with  male  than  with  female  off- 
spring ; a  but  there  appears  to  be  no  sufficient  evidence 
on  record  to  warrant  such  a  conclusion. 

In  the  observations  of  Mr.  Bement,  from  "  those 
cows  that  exceeded  286  days,  the  number  of  females 
was  seven,  while  that  of  the  males  was  twelve.  The 
number  of  female  calves  produced  under  283  days 
was  twenty-four,  while  that  of  the  males  was  thirty- 
one."  !  There  was  thus  a  larger  proportion  of  males 
in  the  periods  above  and  below  what  may  be  consid- 
ered an  average,  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the 
produce  in  the  longest-observed  period  was  a  heifer. 

The  average  period  was  the  same  for  males  and 
females  in  1845,  was  longer  for  females  in  1839,  and 
longer  for  males  in  the  three  remaining  years.  The 
average  for  the  five  years  was  288  days  for  males  and 
283  days  for  females. 

1  Darwin,  "Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,"  vol.  i.,  p.  96. 
1  "  British  Husbandry,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  438 ;  Randall's  "  Practical  Shep- 
herd," p.  207. 

3  The  Cultivator,  1845,  p.  207. 


PEKIOD  OF  GESTATION.  4Q9 

Earl  Spencer  was  inclined  to  believe  that  his  ob- 
servations show  that  "  there  is  some  foundation  for 
this  opinion.  .  .  . 

"  In  order  fairly  to  try  this,"  he  says,  "  the  cows 
calved  before  the  260th  day  and  those  who  calved 
after  the  300th  ought  to  be  omitted  as  being  anoma- 
lous cases,  as  well  as  the  cases  in  which  twins  were 
produced ;  and  it  will  then  appear  that,  from  the 
cows  whose  period  of  gestation  did  not  exceed  286 
days,  the  number  of  cow-calves  produced  was  233 
and  the  number  of  bull-calves  234 ;  while,  from  those 
whose  period  exceeded  286  days,  the  number  of  cow- 
calves  was  only  90,  while  the  number  of  bull-calves 
was  152."  l 

He  neglects,  however,  to  notice  that  in  the  entire 
number  of  births,  omitting  the  twins,  there  were  but 
340  cow-calves  to  401  bull-calves,  or  a  large  prepon- 
derance of  males ;  and  that  all  the  calves  born  after 
the  300th  day  were  females,  while  of  those  born  be- 
fore the  260th  day  ten  were  cow-calves  and  fifteen 
bull-calves. 

M.  Magne,  on  the  contrary,  found  the  period  of 
gestation  longer  with  ewe-lambs  than  with  ram-lambs, 
and  this  he  attributes  to  the  greater  development  of 
the  males  previous  to  birth.3 

The  duration  of  gestation  seems  to  depend  also  to 
some  extent  upon  heredity.  "  It  was  ascertained  by 
the  late  Earl  Spencer  that  of  seventy-five  cows  in  calf 
by  a  particular  bull,  the  average  period  was  288-J  days 
instead  of  280,  none  of  them  having  gone  less  than 

1  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  vol.  i.,  p.  168. 

2  "  Encyclopedic  pratique  de  PAgriculteur,"  tome  x.,  p.  485. 


410  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

281  days,  and  two-fifths  of  them  having  exceeded  289 
days."  ' 

From  the  facts  that  have  been  presented  it  appears 
that  the  size,  early  maturity,  and  inherited  tendencies, 
may  all  have  an  influence  in  determining  the  duration 
of  gestation. 

The  wide  range  of  variations  that  occur  in  the 
same  family,  and  even  in  individuals,  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  there  are  other  and  perhaps  more  efficient 
influences  that  have  escaped  our  attention. 

1  Carpenter's  "  Human  Physiology,"  p.  982. 


APPENDIX. 


THE  following  examples  of  the  form  of  record  in 
the  different  herd-books  are  given  for  the  benefit  of 
persons  not  familiar  with  pedigrees. 

Short-Horn  pedigrees  : 

"(14837)  LORD  or  THE  VALLEY. 

Red,  calved  August  30,  1856,  bred  by  Mr.  R.  Booth, 
Warlaby;  got  by  Crown  Prince  (10087),  dam  (Red 
Rose)  by  Harbinger  (10297),  g.  d.  (Medora)  by  Buck- 
ingham (3239),  gr.  g.  d.  (Monica)  by  Raspberry  (4875), 
—  (White  Strawberry)  by  Rockingham  (2551),  —  by 
Young  Alexander  (2977),  —  by  Pilot  (496),  —  by  the 
Lame  Bull  (359),  —  by  Easby  (232),  —  by  Suwarrow 
(636)."— ("English  Short-Horn  Herd-Book,"  vol.  xii., 
p.  137.) 

"  9798  DUKE  OF  AIEDBIE.  (12730) 

f  The  original  progenitor  of  the  American  Dukes  of  Airdrie,  called  in 
Kentucky  «  The  Old  Duke:] 

Red  and  white,  bred  by  R.  A.  Alexander,  Airdrie,  Scot- 
land, and  imported  to  his  farm  in  Woodford  Co.,  Ky., 
calved  Aug.  4,  1854,  got  by  imp.  Duke  of  Gloster,  2763 


412  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

(11382),  out  of  Duchess  of  Athol,  by  2d  Duke  of  Ox- 
ford (9046),  —  Duchess  54th,  by  2d  Cleveland  Lad 
(3408),  —  Duchess  49th,  by  Short  Tail  (2621),  — 
Duchess  30th,  by  2d  Hubback  (1423),  —  Duchess  20th, 
by  2d  Earl  (1511),  —  Duchess  8th,  by  Marske  (418),  — 
Duchess  2d,  by  Ketton  1st  (709),  —  Duchess  1st,  by 
Comet  (155),  —  by  Favorite  (252),  —  by  Daisy  Bull 
(186),  —  by  Favorite  (252),  —  by  Hubback  (319),  — 
the  Stanwick  cow,  by  J.  Brown's  Red  Bull  (97)." 

Allen's  "  American  Short-Horn  Herd-Book,"  vol.  x., 
p.  107. 

Numbers  in  parentheses  refer  to  "  English  Herd- 
Book,"  open  numbers  to  the  "  American  Herd-Book." 

"171  DUKE  OF  AIEDEIE.  (12730) 

Red  and  white,  calved  August  4,  1854 ;  bred  by,  and 
the  property  of,  Mr.  R.  A.  Alexander,  Airdrie  House, 
Airdrie  ;  got  by  Duke  of  Gloster  175,  d.  (Duchess  of 
Athol)  by  2d  Duke  of  Oxford  180,  g.  d.  (Duchess  54) 
by  2d  Cleveland  Lad  123,  —  (Duchess  49th)  by  Short 
Tail  498,  —  (Duchess  30th)  by  2d  Hubback  281,  — 
(Duchess  20th)  by  the  2d  Earl  183,  —  (Duchess  8th) 
by  Marske  358,  —  (Duchess  2d)  by  Ketton  1st,  305,  — 
(Duchess  1st)  by  Comet  128,  —  by  Favourite  204,  — 
by  Daisy  Bull  151,  —  by  Favourite  204,  —  by  Hubback 
280,  —  by  Mr.  James  Brown's  Red  Bull  80."— (Alexan- 
der's "  Short-Horn  Record,"  vol.  i.,  p.  27.) 

By  comparing  these  pedigrees  with  the  diagrams  on 
pages  147  and  142  it  will  be  seen  that  they  are  given  in 
an  abbreviated  form  in  the  herd-books,  and  that  each 
animal  appearing  in  the  record  must  be  separately  traced 
to  obtain  a  complete  list  of  the  ancestors. 

It  will  also  be  observed  that  the  original  numbers  of 


APPENDIX.  413 

the  bulls  are  used  in  the  "  American  Herd-Book,"  while 
new  numbers  are  assigned  them  in  Alexander's  "  Short- 
Horn  Record." 

The  dash  ( — )  is  used  in  each  of  the  forms  given  to 
indicate  the  "next  dam,"  and  thus  save  space  in  the 
record. 

Hereford  pedigrees  : 

"  376  COTMORE  w.  P.,  calved  1836,  bred  by  the  late 
Mr.  T.  Jeffries,  by  Old  Sovereign  (404),  dam  by  Lottery 
(410).  At  Mrs.  Jeffries's  sale  1844  Cotmore  was  bought 
in  for  £100 ;  he  won,  at  different  times,  the  prizes  for 
two-year-old,  three-year-old,  and  aged  bulls  at  Hereford  ; 
and  the  first  prize  for  Hereford  bulls  at  the  meeting  of 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  at  Oxford  ;  Cotmore's 
dam,  at  the  Grove  sale  1844,  was  sold  for  £33."—  ("  The 
Herd-Book  of  Hereford  Cattle,"  vol.  i.,  p.  52.  See  page 
164  for  extended  pedigree.) 


"(3434)  SIR  CHARLES. 

Red  with  white  face,  calved  February  14,  1867 ;  bred 
by  and  the  property  of  Mr.  F.  W.  Stone,  Moreton  Lodge, 
Guelph,  Canada  ;  got  by  Guelph  (2023),  dam  (Graceful) 
by  Severn  (1382),  g.  d.  (Lady)  by  Albert  Edward  (859), 
g.  g.  d.  (Zephyr)  by  Walford  (871),  —  (Friday  the  Sec- 
ond) T)y  Wonder  (420)  —  (Friday)  by  Commerce  (354), 
—  (Pretty  Maid)  by  The  Sheriff  (356),  —  (Sovereign) 
(404)."— ("Herd -Book  of  Hereford  Cattle,"  vol.  vii., 
p.  125.) 

The  cows  in  all  the  above  cases  are  identified  by  the 
name  of  their  sire  following  their  own.  w.  F.  after 
Cotmore  means  white  face  ;  in  the  first  volumes  of  the 


414  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

"  Hereford  Herd-Book  "  this  abbreviation  was  used,  as 
also  M.  F,  for  mottled  face,  G.  for  gray,  etc. 

Devon  form  of  pedigree  : 

"PRINCE  OF  WALES  (105)  referred  to  as  Quartly's 
Prince  of  "Wales  ;  calved  in  1843,  bred  by  James  Quart- 
ly,  the  property  of  Earl  Leicester.  He  won  the  1st  prize 
as  best  young  bull  in  1844,  and  1st  prize  as  best  old 
bull  in  1845,  at  Exeter  ;  and  1st  prize  in  class  2,  at  the 
B.  A.  M.  at  Shrewsbury.  Sire,  Prince  Albert  (102)  : 
grandsire,  Hundred  Guinea  (56)  :  dam  Duchess  (146) 
by  Hundred  Guinea  (56)  :  grandam  Lilly,  by  a  son  of 
Forester,  (46)  out  of  Long-Horned  Curly,  bred  by  Mr. 
F.  Quartly."—  (Davy's  "  Devon  Herd-Book,"  vol.  i.,  p. 
26.  See  page  149  for  the  same  pedigree  in  tabular  form.) 

"466  EVELEEN  STH. 

Calved  March  14,  1862 ;  bred  by  the  late  Edward  G. 
Faile,  West  Farms,  N"«  Y.  ;  the  property  of  Michigan 
State  Agricultural  College,  Lansing,  Mich. 

Sire  Cayuga  (602)  (587  E) ;  2d  sire,  Tecumseh  (567) 
(535  E) ;  3d  sire,  Frank  Quartly  (205),  imported  ;  4th 
sire,  Earl  of  Exeter  (38)  ;  5th  sire,  Baronet  (6). 

Dam,  imported  Eveleen  (691),  bred  by  Mr.  George 
Turner,  of  Barton,  England,  by  Earl  of  Exeter  (38)  ;  2d 
Dam,  Ruby  (1035),  by  Favorite  (43)  ;  3d  Dam,  Pink 
(952),  by  a  son  of  Pretty  Maid  (366),  and  Watson 
(129)  ;  4th  Dam,  bred  by  Mr.  John  Halse."— -  ("  Ameri- 
can Devon  Herd-Book,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  105.) 

In  Devon  pedigrees  "  The  figures  in  parentheses  with 
the  letter  E,  thus  (00  E)  refer  to  Davy's  third  volume 
of  '  English  Devon  Herd-Book.'  The  figures  in  paren- 
theses, thus  (00),  refer  to  Davy's  first  and  second  vol- 


APPENDIX.  415 

umes,  and  Howard's  third  volume ; "  while  in  references 
to  the  "American  Devon  Herd-Book"  the  figures  are 
not  inclosed  in  parentheses. 

This  complication  in  the  numbers  designating  re- 
corded animals  arises  from  the  simultaneous  publication, 
in  England  and  America,  of  a  third  volume  of  pedigrees, 
the  numbers  in  each  being  a  continuation  of  the  num- 
bers in  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  the  "  English 
Herd-Book."  There  are  therefore  two  so-called  third 
volumes  of  the  "  Devon  Herd-Book,"  one  English,  a  con- 
tinuation of  Davy's  original  series,  and  the  other  Ameri- 
can, known  as  Howard's  third  volume. 

After  the  publication  of  the  latter  an  "Association 
of  Breeders  "  started  an  American  "  Devon  Herd-Book," 
in  which  American  pedigrees  are  now  recorded. 

Ayrshire  form  of  record  : 

"  668  NETTIE. 

Light  red  with  a  little  white  ;  calved  May  13,  1863 ; 
bred  by  Henry  H.  Peters,  Sotrthboro,  Mass.  ;  owned  by 
Prof.  Manly  Miles,  Lansing,  Mich* 

Sire,  Eglinton,  21.     Dam,  Ruth,  193." 
(American  "  Ayrshire  Herd-Book,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  102.) 
The  sire  and  dam  only  are  given  here,  and  reference 
to  the  record  under  their  numbers  is  necessary  to  extend 
the  pedigree. 

There  are  now  three  "  Ayrshire  Herd-Books "  pub- 
lished in  America ;  but  we  need  not  give  examples  of 
pedigrees  from  all  of  them,  as  the  system  of  recording 
is  essentially  the  same,  the  cows  as  well  as  the  bulb 
having  a  distinguishing  number. 

The  pedigrees  in  the  record  of  the  "American  Jersey 
Cattle  Club "  are  published  in  tabular  form ;  the  sire 


416  PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-BREEDING. 

and  dam,  each,  with  a  distinguishing  number,  are  alone 
given.  The  headings  of  the  different  columns,  in  which 
the  record  is  made,  are  as  follows  : 

No. — Name —  Color  and  distinguishing  marks — By 
whom  bred  or  imported —  When  dropped  or  imported — 
From  what  place,  in  what  vessel — Present  or  last  oicner 
— Sire — Dam, 


INDEX. 


Abnormal  characters,  heredity  of,  49. 

Acquired  characters,  heredity  of,  40. 

Adaptation  of  animals  to  locality,  10, 386. 

Allen,  L.  F.,  observations  on  period  of 
gestation,  404. 

Alternation  of  generations  in  heredity  of 
disease,  32,  71 ;  of  generations  in  he- 
redity of  qualities,  73. 

Ambidextrous  family,  45. 

Ancon  sheep,  55. 

Animals  as  machines,  4. 

Antagonistic  characters  not  incompati- 
ble, 91. 

Antagonism,  of  acquired  and  natural 
traits,  48;  of  functions,  90;  of  milk 
and  meat  production,  891 ;  of  nutritive 
and  reproductive  functions,  111 ;  of 
reproductive  functions  and  fatty  di- 
athesis, 117. 

Arrest  of  development,  292. 

Art  based  on  practice,  8. 

Artificial  characters  of  improved  breeds, 
104,155;  unstable,  104. 

Art  of  breeding,  1 ;  in  advance  of  the  sci- 
ence, 8 ;  object  of,  7. 

Atavism,  66;  color  in  Short- Horns,  69; 
compared  with  memory,  80;  developed 
by  cross-breeding,  206,  208;  Dr.  Chad- 
bourne's  case  of,  69;  Dr.  Struther's 
case  of  extra  digits,  68 ;  George  III., 
case  of  insanity,  68 ;  in  Buff  Cochins, 
from  cross  of  families,  206 ;  horns  in 
polled  breeds,  68 ;  in  Essex  swine,  68 ; 
in  Malay  fowls,  67 ;  in  polled  cattle  in 
Maine,  67 ;  in  Kumpless  fowls,  67 ;  not 
always  reversion,  73;  pointer  bitch 
Sappho,  67;  sexual  limitation  of,  71, 


223 ;  Siebold's  case  of,  69 ;  tan-colored 

marks  on  merinos,  70 ;  without  limit, 

80. 

Athletes,  families  of,  14. 
Ayrshires,  form  of  recorded  pedigrees, 

415. 

Bach  family,  musicians,  15. 

Bakewell,  Kobert,  2. 

Balance  of  the  organization,  95. 

Bantams,  Sebright,  fecundity  of,  89. 

Barrenness,  causes  of,  116-121 ;  from  fat- 
ty degeneration,  121 ;  from  plethoric 
condition,  116. 

Barre,  Victorie,  51. 

Basque  settlements,  intermarriages  in, 
187. 

Bat,  correlated  characters  of,  86. 

Bates's  Short-Horns,  pedigree  of,  144. 

Bee,  determination  of  sex  in,  331. 

Beef  and  milk,  90,  891. 

Bemis,  Dr.,  report  on  marriages  of  con- 
sanguinity, 182. 

Bilateral  symmetry  of  tumors,  81. 

Birth-rate,  increase  of,  increases  propor- 
tion of  females,  820 ;  influence  of  wars 
and  epidemics  on,  818 ;  of  males  in  ex- 
cess of  females,  815. 

Births,  cases  of  plural,  130 ;  relative  num- 
ber in  old  and  new  countries,  125 ;  to 
a  marriage  in  Paris,  124. 

Bitch  with  three  legs,  57. 

Black  dogs,  tan -colored  marks  on,  88. 

Blending  of  characters  not  a  law  of  he- 
redity, 76-78. 

Blindness,  heredity  of,  29. 

Blind  persons,  sense  of  touch  in,  87. 


418 


INDEX. 


"Blood"  not  to  bo  estimated  in  mathe- 
matical proportions,  340. 

Bones,  an  index  of  qualities,  3G6. 

Bone-spavin  inherited,  28. 

Booth  Short-Horns,  causes  of  diminished 
fecundity  in,  170;  in-bred,  143-146; 
pedigree  of,  147. 

Brand-marks  on  animals,  heredity  of,  58. 

Breeding  as  an  art,  1 ;  importance  of  care 
in,  842. 

Breeding-in-the-line  defined,  349. 

Breeds,  origin  of,  837 ;  refined  characters 
of  improved,  97;  uniformity  in  charac- 
ters of,  13. 

Bremen  geese,  in-bred,  166. 

Brisket,  form  of,  375. 

Brown-Sequard's,  Dr.,  experiments  with 
Guinea-pigs,  58,  59. 

Buft  Cochins,  atavism  in,  from  cross  of 
families,  206. 

Butts,  Mr.  George,  in-breeding  of  Short- 
Horns,  163. 

Calculi,  renal,  heredity  of,  229. 
Cancer,  heredity  of,  38. 
Carnivora,  correlated  characters  of,  84. 
Cat,  case  of  cross-heredity  in,  253 ;  with 

crushed  tail,  57. 
Cats,  inherited  habit  in,  43 ;  white,  with 

blue  eyes,  deaf,  88. 

Cattle,  in  South  America,  milking  quali- 
ties of,  101 ;  wild,  of  Chillingham  Park, 

165. 
Characters    inherited    as    physiological 

units,  76. 
Charmer,  Short-Horn  cow,  breeding  of, 

171-174. 

Charmoise  breed  of  sheep,  origin  of,  197. 
Cheese,  inherited  aversion  to,  229. 
Chest,  form  of,  374. 
Cheviot  sheep  crossed  on  Black -Faced 

Heath  breed,  193 ;  cross  with  Dishley, 

194. 

Chillingham  Park  cattle,  165. 
Circulation,  capillary,  importance  of,  879. 
Civilization,  influence  of,  on  fecundity, 

123. 
Clarissa,  Short-Horn  cow,  pedigree  of, 

171. 
Climatic  variations  of  wheat  and  maize, 

94. 
Close-breeding,  137,  349;   not  a  direct 


cause  of  degeneracy,  162 ;  objections  to, 
188. 

Coat,  peculiarities  of,  £81. 

Colling  Short-Horns,  pedigree  of,  172. 

Color,  atavic  transmission  of,  69. 

Color-blindness  and  musical  ear,  87 ;  he- 
redity of,  19 ;  sexual  limitation  in  he- 
redity of,  228. 

Combination  of  qualities,  how  produced, 
892. 

Conditions  of  life,  influence  of,  on  fecun- 
dity, 108,  394;  a  cause  of  variation,  U2, 
104, 105. 

Consanguineous  marriages,  reports  on, 
176-186. 

Constancy  of  species  and  types,  12. 

Consumption,  statistics  of,  26. 

Congenital  defects,  23 ;  caused  by  defec- 
tive sanitary  conditions,  105. 

Corpus  luteum,  peculiarities  of,  276. 

Correlation,  law  of,  88 ;  law  of,  illustrated 
in  monstrosities,  291 ;  of  horns  with 
reproductive  organs,  88;  of  milking 
qualities  and  fertility,  122, 175. 

Correlations  of  external  form,  353-855; 
of  functions,  108. 

Cotmore,  Hereford  bull,  pedigree  of,  164. 

Cow,  period  of  gestation  in,  402 ;  prolific, 
181-138. 

Cregan,  Irish  horse,  transmitting  blind- 
ness, 29. 

Cross-bred,  definition  of,  849. 

Cross-breeding,  190 ;  continued  influence 
of,  840;  effects  of,  193,  204,  340;  good 
males  required  in,  195. 

Cross-heredity,  case  of,  in  cat,  253. 

Cross-breeds,  difficulty  in  establishing, 
208. 

Cross  of  Cheviot  and  Black-Faced  Heath 
breeds,  193. 

Curbs,  heredity  of,  28. 

Darkness,  influence  of,  in  producing  de- 
formities, 105. 

Dauborn,  village  of,  intermarriages  in,  186. 

Day-blindness,  heredity  of,  20. 

Deaf-dumbness  and  consanguinity,  176 ; 
heredity  of,  178. 

Deafness,  alternation  of,  in  a  family,  74; 
in  cats,  correlated  with  color,  88. 

Deer,  correlation  of  horns  and  reproduc- 
tive organs  in,  88. 


INDEX. 


419 


Defective  nutrition,  28,  24,  84. 

Defective  proportion  of  limbs  predispos- 
ing to  disease,  34. 

Deformities,  heredity  of,  57;  caused  by 
living  in  dark  apartments,  106. 

Development,  arrest  of,  292;  of  special 
characters  and  scrofula,  116. 

Devon  cattle,  in-and-in  breeding  of,  148 ; 
form  of  recorded  pedigrees,  414. 

Diagram  of  Bates  pedigrees,  144;  of 
Booth  pedigrees,  14T ;  pedigree  of  bull 
Shakespeare,  143 ;  of  Duke  of  Airdrie, 
142;  of  Goldsmith's  Maid,  151;  of  me- 
rino ram  Gold  Drop,  152;  of  New 
York  Mills  Short-Horns,  145. 

Dickson,  Dr.,  on  consanguineous  mar- 
riages, 184. 

Digits,  supernumerary  and  deficient,  50, 
51. 

Disease,  atavic,  transmission  of,  80;  foetus 
in  utero  liable  to,  294 ;  of  one  sex  trans- 
mitted by  the  other,  224 ;  predisposing 
and  exciting  causes  of,  25,  26 ;  varied 
forms  of,  25;  heredity  of,  22. 

Disposition  inherited,  18. 

Dogs,  acquired  habits  in,  transmitted,  43 ; 
inherited  characters  of,  40;  wolf-like, 
of  Falkland  islands,  45. 

Domestication  favorable  to  fecundity,  110. 

Domesticated  varieties  more  liable  to  va- 
riation, 92. 

Dominant  characters,  77;  fixed  by  in- 
breeding, 156 ;  how  made  uniform,  220. 

Dominique  fowls,  in-breeding  of,  167. 

Dorking  fowls,  fifth  toe  in,  52. 

Duck,  bones  in  wild  and  tame,  101. 

Ducornet,  the  historical  painter,  105. 

Duforet,  Aug.,  case  of,  51. 

Duke  of  Airdrie,  pedigree  of,  142,411. 

Dupuy,  Dr.,  experiments  of,  with  Guinea- 
pigs,  59. 

Duration  of  life  determined  by  heredity, 
16. 

Dwarfs,  case  of  children  alternately,  74. 

Earle's,  Dr.,  case  of  color-blindness,  19. 

Early  breeders,  practice  of,  2 ;  early  ma- 
turity, modified  dentition  from,  103; 
shortens  the  period  of  gestation,  407. 

Ear,  expression  of,  871. 

Ears,  small,  in  family  of  sheep,  54. 

Eggs,  number  of,  in  fowls,  87. 


Election  In  heredity,  79. 
Embryo,  development  of^  239. 
Embryological  development,  law  of,  291. 
Endemic  causes  of  variation,  106. 
Epileptic  Guinea-pigs,  58. 
Equilibrium  of  the  system  defective  in 

pampered  animals,  91, 116. 
Escutcheon  of  Guenon,  388. 
Experiments  with  Guinea-pigs,  58. 
External    conformation,  importance  of, 

852. 

Eyelid,  deformed.  53. 
Eyes,  tortoise-shell  colored,  hereditary, 

54. 

Family  characters  hereditary,  18, 44 ;  how 
produced,  103 ;  variations  in,  219 ;  type 
modified  by  engrafting  new  characters, 
104, 161. 

Fancy  points  and  prices,  845. 

Fat,  excessive  deposit  not  favorable  to 
health,  118. 

Fattening  tendency  hereditary,  15,  40. 

Fatty  degeneration,  119-121 ;  diathesis  a 
cause  of  impaired  fecundity,  117-120. 

Fear  of  man  in  wild  animals  acquired,  45. 

Fecundation,  of  eggs  in  turtles,  279 ;  pre- 
cise time  of,  uncertain,  801. 

Fecundity,  108;  depressing  influences 
favoring,  320 ;  determined  by  heredity, 
17,  88, 126;  diminished,  in  young  ani- 
mals, 38,  118;  impaired,  restored  by 
selection,  170 ;  influenced  by  quality  of 
food,  113 ;  of  animals  in  confinement, 
108, 109 ;  of  merino  sheep  in  England, 
109 ;  relation  of  size  in  animals  to,  114; 
of  sheep  in  the  Cordilleras,  109. 

Feed,  better  supply  of,  required  by  im- 
proved breeds,  212. 

Feeding,  experiments  in,  5. 

Female,  characters  of,  transmitted  by 
male,  230. 

Fertility  diminished  by  over-feeding,  115. 

Fineness  of  wool-fibres,  change  in,  97. 

Finger,  deformed,  case  of  inheritance  of, 
57. 

Foetus  in  utero  liable  to  disease,  294. 

Food,  a  variety  of,  required,  93 ;  influence 
of,  in  modifying  animals,  96;  supply 
and  fecundity,  114, 125. 

Form,  an  index  of  quality,  352 ;  propor- 
tions of,  in  meat- producing  breeds,  358. 


420 


INDEX. 


Foscote  flock,  in-breeding  of,  158. 

Fowls,  Dominique,  in-breeding  of,  167 ; 
fecundity  of,  in  confinement,  109 ;  fifth 
toe  in,  52. 

Free-martins,  imperfect  reproductive  or- 
gans of,  184, 185. 

Functional  derangement  of  organs  trans- 
mitted, 59. 

Function,  heredity  of,  not  dependent  on 
structure,  64. 

Geese  in-bred  by  Colonel  Jaques,  166. 

Gestation,  influence  of  sex  on  period  of, 
408;  period  of,  400;  period  of,  varies 
with  size  of  animals,  400. 

Gold  Drop,  pedigree  of  merino  ram,  152. 

Goldsmith's  Maid,  pedigree  of,  151. 

Grades,  breeding  of,  204,  211,  898;  de- 
fined, 349 ;  high-bred  males  desirable 
in  breeding,  398. 

Grease  in  horses,  heredity  of,  30. 

Greyhounds  acclimated  in  Mexico,  102. 

Grazier,  Short-Horn  bull,  pedigree  of, 
171,  173. 

Guinea-pigs,  Dr.  Brown-Soquard's  ex- 
periments with,  58,  59;  Dr.  Dupuy's 
report  of  experiments  with,  60. 

Habit,  change  of,  in  animals,  47. 

Habits,  heredity  of,  43. 

Hair,  lock  of  different  color  inherited,  56; 
turning  gray  early  in  life,  inherited,  20. 

Half-and-half  theory  of  generation,  objec- 
tions to,  238. 

Hammond  family  of  merino  sheep  in- 
bred, 150. 

Hampshire  sheep,  cross-breeding  of,  191. 

Handling,  indications  of,  379. 

Handwriting,  heredity  of,  44. 

Hardiness,  diminished,  in  improved 
breeds,  389. 

Harmony  of  different  farm  interests,  9. 

Haemorrhage,  heredity  of,  with  sexual 
limitation,  72. 

Herbivorous  animals,  correlated  charac- 
ters of,  85. 

Heredity,  half-and-half  theory  of,  234 ; 
of  abnormal  characters,  49 ;  of  acquired 
characters,  40 ;  of  bony  tumors,  31 ;  of 
deaf-mutism,  178-180 ;  of  disease,  22 ; 
of  functional  activity  of  organs,  23 ;  of 
habits,  43,  47;  of  normal  characters, 


11;  of  the  production  of  twins,  128, 

129. 
Hereford  cattle,  in-breeding  of,  146, 164; 

bull  Cotmore,  breeding  of,  163,  164; 

form  of  recorded  pedigrees,  413. 
High-breeding  defined,  139, 349 ;  relations 

to  prepotency,  216. 
Hind-quarters,  form  of,  875. 
Hornless  bull,  accidental  character  trans- 
mitted, 54. 

Horns,  an  index  of  qualities,  371. 
Horse,  correlation  of  white  on  feet  and 

face,  88. 

Horses  in-bred,  149. 
Houdan  fowls,  fifth  toe  in,  52. 
Hybrids,  peculiarities  of,  242-248. 
Hydrocele,  transmitted  by  female,  232. 

Ichthyosis,  hereditary  case  of,  71. 

Ideal  model  of  Bakewell,  2. 

Idiocy,  acquired,  not  congenital,  187;  re- 
lation to  marriages  of  consanguinity. 
187. 

Imagination,  supposed  influence  of,  281- 
287. 

Immaturity  in  breeding  stock,  effect  on 
offspring,  86. 

Impregnation,  continued  influence  of, 
273-277;  influence  of  previous,  255, 
partial,  278-280 ;  repeated  fertilization 
to  produce,  279. 

Impaired  nutrition  and  decreased  fecun- 
dity, 112. 

Improved  breeds,  artificial  characters  of, 
155;.  characters  difficult  to  retain,  104. 

Improvements  limited  by  tendency  to 
variation,  107. 

In-and-in  breeding,  187;  and  impaired 
fecundity,  168 ;  generally  practised  by 
improvers  of  breeds,  140, 141,  143 ;  in- 
fluence of,  156;  objects  of,  140,  154, 
155. 

In-breeding  necessary  to  retain  family 
characters,  157. 

Incubation,  supposed  influence  of.  on  off- 
spring, 281. 

Indian-corn,  climatic  variations  in,  93. 

Indirect  transmission  of  disease,  84. 

Inheritance  of  parental  characters,  79. 

Insanity,  heredity  of,  27 ;  relation  of;  to 
consanguinity,  188. 

Instincts,  accumulated  experience,  47. 


INDEX. 


421 


Intra-uterine  influences,  281. 
Irish  marriages,  statistics  of,  306. 

Jaques,  Colonel,  in-breeding  of  geese  by, 
166. 

Jarvis,  Dr.,  on  consanguineous  mar- 
riages, 185. 

Jerseys,  form  of  recorded  pedigrees,  415. 

Jews,  constancy  of  race,  13 ;  intermar- 
riages among  the,  180. 

Kangaroo,  correlated  organs  of,  86. 

Kelleia,  Gratio,  heredity  of  extra  digits, 
49. 

Kerry  cattle,  effect  of  changed  condi- 
tions on,  100. 

Lambs,  early  market,  213. 

Landau,  siege  of,  282. 

Latent  characters,  77;  latent  predisposi- 
tion to  disease,  82. 

Le  Compte  family,  blindness  in,  30. 

Leicester  sheep,  in-breeding  of,  153. 

Life,  duration  of,  hereditary,  16. 

Light,  influence  of,  on  development,  105. 

Like  begets  like,  extent  of  the  law,  2. 

Lille,  deformed  beggars  born  in,  106. 

Limbs,  embryonic  development  of,  293. 

Live-stock  as  machines,  4;  relations  of, 
to  tillage,  9. 

Longevity  hereditary,  16. 

Long-horn  cattle,  pedigrees  of,  148 ;  Mar- 
shall's description  of,  159. 

Madness,  heredity  of,  in  male  line,  229. 

Maize,  climatic  variations  in,  98. 

Malay  fowls,  atavism  in,  67;  in-bred,  166. 

Male,  characters  of,  transmitted  by  fe- 
male, 232;  influence  of,  on  offspring, 
215,  218. 

Malformations,  heredity  of,  56,  57;  not 
produced  by  maternal  imagination,  288. 

Males,  at  birth  more  numerous  than  fe- 
males, 815 ;  greater  death-rate  of  young, 
315;  importance  of  high-breeding  in, 
217,  397 ;  importance  of  prepotency  in, 
157. 

Manatee,  fear  of  man  in,  46. 

Mare,  period  of  gestation  in,  402. 

Maturity,  early,  and  correlated  modifica- 
tions of  the  system,  103 ;  of  germ,  in- 
fluence of,  on  sex,  298. 


Male,  supposed  transmission  of  external 
characters  by,  284. 

Males  produced  from  unimpregnated 
eggs  of  bee,  332. 

Medicines  as  exciting  causes  of  disease, 
26. 

Mental  disease,  27;  habits,  heredity  of, 
18. 

Merino  sheep,  atavic  transmission  of 
spots,  70;  fecundity  of,  in  England, 
109  ;  influence  of  changed  conditions 
on,  96 ;  in-breeding  of,  150, 175. 

Meynel's,  Mr.,  fox-hounds  in-bred,  188. 

Migration  of  birds,  a  habit,  48 ;  relation 
of,  to  reproductive  functions,  114. 

Milcote  sale  of  Short-Horns,  171. 

Milk  and  beef,  90,  891. 

Milking  qualities  hereditary,  58. 

Milk-secretion  dependent  on  habit,  102 ; 
relation  of,  to  fecundity,  122, 175. 

Monstrosities,  general  law  influencing, 
289. 

Mountain-breeds,  small,  95. 

Mule,  parental  characters  of,  242-247 
organ  of  voice  in,  243,  247. 

Muscular  strength,  heredity  of,  14;  de- 
velopment from  exercise,  101. 

Musical  talent,  heredity  of,  15. 

Nature  and  culture,  48. 

Neck,  form  of,  373. 

New  characters  in  a  family  tend  to  vary 
the  type,  104. 

Newman's,  Dr.,  report  on  "  Marriages  of 
Consanguinity,"  184. 

New  York  Mills  Short-Horns,  pedigrees 
of,  145. 

Niata  cattle,  56. 

Night-blindness  inherited,  20. 

Non-inheritance,  how  determined,  59. 

Norwegian  ponies,  habit  in,  48. 

Nutrition,  impaired,  a  cause  of  malforma- 
tions, 292. 

Nutritive  functions  and  impaired  fecun- 
dity, 111. 

Obesity,  heredity  of,  238. 
Object  of  the  art  of  breeding,  7. 
Offspring,  size  of,  at  birth,  212. 
Ophthalmia,  hereditary  case  of,  29. 
Orton's  theory  of  heredity,  237,  242. 
Otter  breed  of  sheep,  55. 


422 


INDEX. 


Oxfordshire  breed  of  sheep  cross-bred, 
192. 

Pampering,  a  cause  of  impaired  fecundi- 
ily,  170. 

Parental  characters,  all  ancestors  includ- 
ed in,  75. 

Parents,  relative  influence  of,  215. 

Peccary,  instinct  of  dogs  in  hunting  the, 
41. 

Pedigree,  837;  importance  of,  82;  of 
Bates's  Short-Horns,  144  ;  of  Booth's 
Short-Horns,  147 ;  of  Colling's  Short- 
Horns,  172  ;  of  Devon  bull,  Quartly's 
Prince  of  Wales,  149,  414;  of  Duke  of 
Airdrie,  142,  411 ;  of  Goldsmith  Maid, 
151;  of  Hereford  bull  Cotmore,  164; 
of  Long-Horn  bull  Shakespeare,  148 ;  of 
merino  ram  Gold  Drop,  152;  of  New 
York  Mills  Short-Horns,  145 ;  of  Short- 
Horn  bull  Grazier,  173 ;  value  of,  839- 
844. 

Pedigrees,  how  recorded,  850,  411. 

Period  of  gestation,  400. 

Physiological  units,  characters  inherited 
as,  76. 

Physiology,  applications  of,  8. 

Pigeons,  in-breeding  of,  167. 

Pigs  pointing  game,  48. 

Pitcairn  Island  Settlement,  intermar- 
riages in,  187. 

Plague,  influence  of,  on  fecundity,  126. 

Plasticity  of  organization  of  animals,  92. 

Plethora  unfavorable  to  fecundity,  115. 

Plural  births,  cases  of;  127, 180, 183. 

Points  of  animals,  869,  370. 

Polled  cattle,  origin  of,  54. 

Polydactylism,  49,  50. 

Practice  of  the  best  breeders,  143. 

Precocious  marriages,  36. 

Predisposition  to  disease,  heredity  of,  28, 
82. 

Prepotency,  developed  by  in-breeding, 
156,  158;  how  modified,  204,  221 ;  im- 
paired by  cross-breeding,  200; influence 
of,  in  cross-breeding,  197-202 ;  not  ac- 
cidental, 158;  of  different  breeds,  202. 

Principles  of  breeding,  1. 

Profit  the  measure  of  success  in  breed- 
ing,^ 

Proportion  of  limbs  predisposing  to  dis- 
ease, 84. 


Pumpkin-buttock  cattle,  875. 
Pure-bred  defined,  349. 

Qualifications  of  a  breeder,  3. 

Quality,  379. 

Quality  of  food,  influence  of,  on  reproduc- 
tive functions,  118. 

Quartly's  Prince  of  Wales,  pedigree  of, 
149. 

Queen-bee,  development  of,  883. 

Rabbits,  breed  of,  with  one  ear,  57. 

Eelative  influence  of  parents,  215. 

Reproductive  organs,  activity  of,  de- 
pendent on  nutrition,  111 ;  correlated 
modifications  of,  122 ;  dormant  during 
period  of  growth,  112. 

Resemblance  of  offspring  to  parents,  11, 
75. 

Reversion,  66;  favored  by  cross-breed- 
ing, 204. 

Rheumatic  gout,  sexual  limitation  in  he- 
redity of,  227. 

Riches,  influence  of,  on  fecundity,  123. 

Rich  family  of  merinos,  in -breeding  of, 
158. 

Ring-bone,  heredity  of,  28. 

Roaring  in  horses  inherited,  29. 

Root-pruning  of  trees  for  unfruitfulncss, 
112. 

Rumpless  fowls,  atavism  in,  67 ;  fecundi- 
ty of,  89. 

Saigak  antelopes,  46. 

Sanitary  conditions,  influence  of,  105. 

Scarce  egger-moth,  79. 

Science,  relations  of,  to  the  art  of  breed- 
ing, 8. 

Scrofula,  causes  of,  25;  heredity  of,  24, 
25;  indications  of,  24;  various  forms 
of,  25. 

Scrofulous  tumors  of  ovary,  121. 

Secondary  sexual  characters,  relation  of, 
to  fertility,  89. 

Selection,  885 ;  by  early  breeders,  2 ;  with 
reference  to  fecundity,  895. 

Sex,  causes  that  determine,  296-836 ;  de- 
termined by  heredity,  327 ;  determined 
by  parental  influence,  814 ;  Dr.  Flint's 
theory  of,  330;  influence  of  illegitimacy 
on,  811 ;  influence  of  degree  of  impreg- 
nation in  determining,  831 ;  influence 


IXDEX. 


of  relative  age  of  parents  on,  304;  in- 
fluence of  relative  vigor  of  parents  on, 
•  831 ;  in  insects  determined  by  nutri- 
tion, 332 ;  M.  Girou's  theory  of,  802 ; 
Mr.  Stuyvesant's  theory  of,  335;  M. 
Thury's  theory  of,  298;  Sir  Everard 
Home's  theory  of,  829. 

Sexes,  relative  proportion  of,  806-315; 
relative  proportion  in  plural  births, 
822. 

Sexual  limitation  of  characters,  71,  222. 

Shakespeare,  Long-Horn  bull,  pedigree 
of,  148, 159, 160. 

Sheath-bill,  46. 

Sheep,  breeding  of,  twice  a  year,  132; 
cases  of  prolific,  131;  Charmoise  breed, 
origin  of,  197 ;  cross-bred,  191 ;  in  the 
Cordilleras  not  prolific,  109;  little- 
eared  breed  of,  54;  on  rich  pastures 
prolific,  111;  period  of  gestation  in, 
405;  variations  in,  from  changed  con- 
ditions, 97. 

Shepherd-dogs,  inherited  habits  of,  41. 

Shock  of  nervous  system  of  mother,  in- 
fluence of,  292. 

Short-horns,  Bates's  pedigrees,  144,  411 ; 
Booth's  pedigrees,  146,  147,  411 ;  Col- 
ling's  pedigrees,  172 ;  form  of  pedigree, 
411 ;  in-bred  by  Mr.  Butts,  163 ;  New 
York  Mills  pedigrees,  145. 

Shropshire  sheep,  origin  of,  192. 

Shoulders,  best  form  of,  374. 

Sight,  long  and  short,  heredity  of,  20. 

Size  of  animals  and  food-supply,  95 ;  in- 
fluence of,  on  fecundity,  114. 

Skin-disease,  sexual  limitation  of,  heredi- 
fary,  222 ;  skin,  peculiarities  of,  indi- 
cating quality,  331. 

Smell,  sense  of,  acute  in  blind  persons, 
87. 

Sow,  case  of  prolific,  132. 

Spencer,  EarJ,  on  period  of  gestation, 
403. 

Spermatozoa,  several  required  for  fecun- 
dation, 280. 

Spontaneity,  76,  81. 

Spontaneous  prepotency  not  probable, 
158. 

Spooner's  theory  of  inheritance,  237. 

Springing  spaniels,  changed  instinct  in, 
41. 

Standard  of  excellence  desirable,  353. 


Statistics  of  births,  defects  in,  813. 

Strain  of  back-tendons,  29. 

Sugar   as    food,   relations    to   fertility, 

113. 
Supernumerary  organs,  varied  position 

of,  52. 

Surgical  diseases,  heredity  of,  28. 
Swelled  legs,  heredity,  case  of,  29,  30. 
Swine,  period  of  gestation  in,  407. 

Tail,  loss  of,  in  pigs,  hereditary,  56. 

Teeth,  decay  of,  hereditary,  20,  228. 

Temperament  of  working-animals,  882. 

Temper  of  animals  inherited,  18. 

Terms  in  use  by  breeders,  348. 

Texan  steer.  877. 

Thorough-bred,  definition  of,  348. 

Toes,  overlapping,  heredity  of,  5(3. 

Touch,  indications  of,  379  ;  sense  of,  in 
blind  persons,  87. 

Trotting  habit,  how  developed,  47. 

Tumors,  bilateral  symmetry  of,  31. 

Turtles,  successive  fecundation  in,  274. 

Twins,  conditions  favoring  production  of, 
111,  126,  128 ;  female  not  always  bar- 
ren, 128;  hereditary  procreation  of, 
228;  inherited  production  of,  through 
male  line,  128;  production  of,  not  an 
indication  of  remarkable  fertility,  186. 

U  S  heifer,  supposed  influence  of  imagi- 
nation, 285. 
Uterus,  absence  of,  hereditary,  233. 

Value  of  animals,  4,  6. 

Variation  from  changed  conditions,  105 ; 
in  animals,  causes  of,  93,  105;  in  inher- 
ited characters,  81 ;  law  of,  76,  92 ; 
greater  tendency  to,  in  domesticated 
animals,  92;  in  abnormal  characters, 
52 ;  not  spontaneous,  76. 

Variations  that  are  desirable  difficult  to 
retain,  156;  from  endemic  causes,  106; 
tendency  to,  undesirable,  890. 

Voice,  organ  of,  in  the  ass  and  mule,  248, 
247. 

Walker's  theory  of  inheritance,  235,  241, 

250-253. 

Walk,  peculiarity  in,  hereditary,  20. 
Wealth,  relations  of,  to  fertility,  123. 
Wheat,  climatic  variations  in,  94. 


424: 


INDEX. 


Wild  animals,  fear  of  man  in,  45. 
Wild  cattle  of  Chillingham  Park,  165. 
Wild  geese,  in-breeding  of,  16T. 
Woodcock,  change  of  habits  in,  47. 
Wool,  measurements  of;  97-100. 
Working-animals,  correlated  structure  of, 


Wright's,  Mr.  J.,  in-bred  pigs,  168. 
Writing,  family  peculiarities  in,  44. 

Young  animals,  breeding  from,  36 ;  not 

prolific,  113. 
Young  Mary,  Short-Horn  cow,  fecundity 

pf,  17. 


THE  END. 


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